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Study flow diagram for search run in March 2011.
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Figure 1

Study flow diagram for search run in March 2011.

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Main characteristics of included studies.
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Figure 2

Main characteristics of included studies.

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Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
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Figure 3

Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.

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Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
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Figure 4

Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.

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Secondary outcome measures.
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Figure 5

Secondary outcome measures.

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Comparison 1 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS, Outcome 1 VAS or NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcome).
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Analysis 1.1

Comparison 1 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS, Outcome 1 VAS or NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcome).

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Comparison 1 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS, Outcome 2 VAS anxiety 0‐10 (short‐term outcome).
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Analysis 1.2

Comparison 1 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS, Outcome 2 VAS anxiety 0‐10 (short‐term outcome).

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Comparison 1 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS, Outcome 3 VAS or NRS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome).
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Analysis 1.3

Comparison 1 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS, Outcome 3 VAS or NRS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome).

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Comparison 1 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS, Outcome 4 VAS anxiety 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome).
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Analysis 1.4

Comparison 1 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS, Outcome 4 VAS anxiety 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome).

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Comparison 1 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS, Outcome 5 NRS 0‐10 (long‐term outcome).
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Analysis 1.5

Comparison 1 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS, Outcome 5 NRS 0‐10 (long‐term outcome).

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Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 1 NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcome).
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Analysis 2.1

Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 1 NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcome).

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Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 2 BPI (short‐term outcome).
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Analysis 2.2

Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 2 BPI (short‐term outcome).

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Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 3 BDI (short‐term outcome).
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Analysis 2.3

Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 3 BDI (short‐term outcome).

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Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 4 NRS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome).
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Analysis 2.4

Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 4 NRS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome).

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Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 5 BPI (mid‐term outcome).
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Analysis 2.5

Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 5 BPI (mid‐term outcome).

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Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 6 BDI (mid‐term outcome).
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Analysis 2.6

Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 6 BDI (mid‐term outcome).

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Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 7 NRS 0‐10 (long‐term outcome).
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Analysis 2.7

Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 7 NRS 0‐10 (long‐term outcome).

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Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 8 BPI (long‐term outcome).
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Analysis 2.8

Comparison 2 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS, Outcome 8 BPI (long‐term outcome).

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Comparison 3 Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) versus sham CES, Outcome 1 Short‐term outcome NRS/BPI pain intensity subscale.
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Analysis 3.1

Comparison 3 Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) versus sham CES, Outcome 1 Short‐term outcome NRS/BPI pain intensity subscale.

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Comparison 3 Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) versus sham CES, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 3.2

Comparison 3 Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) versus sham CES, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 1 WUSPI (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 4.1

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 1 WUSPI (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 2 VAS 0‐10 (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 4.2

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 2 VAS 0‐10 (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 3 SF‐36 (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 4.3

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 3 SF‐36 (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 4 CES‐D (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 4.4

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 4 CES‐D (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 5 SQOL (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 4.5

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 5 SQOL (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 6 PQOL (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 4.6

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 6 PQOL (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 7 WUSPI (mid‐term outcome).
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Analysis 4.7

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 7 WUSPI (mid‐term outcome).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 8 VAS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome).
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Analysis 4.8

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 8 VAS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 9 SQOL (mid‐term outcome).
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Analysis 4.9

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 9 SQOL (mid‐term outcome).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 10 SF‐36 and VAS (short‐term outcomes, standardised mean difference).
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Analysis 4.10

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 10 SF‐36 and VAS (short‐term outcomes, standardised mean difference).

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Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 11 WUSPI and VAS (short‐term outcomes, standardised mean difference).
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Analysis 4.11

Comparison 4 Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention, Outcome 11 WUSPI and VAS (short‐term outcomes, standardised mean difference).

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Comparison 5 Acupuncture versus sham acupuncture and Trager treatment intervention, Outcome 1 WUSPI (short‐term outcome).
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Analysis 5.1

Comparison 5 Acupuncture versus sham acupuncture and Trager treatment intervention, Outcome 1 WUSPI (short‐term outcome).

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Comparison 5 Acupuncture versus sham acupuncture and Trager treatment intervention, Outcome 2 WUSPI (mid‐term outcome).
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Analysis 5.2

Comparison 5 Acupuncture versus sham acupuncture and Trager treatment intervention, Outcome 2 WUSPI (mid‐term outcome).

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Comparison 5 Acupuncture versus sham acupuncture and Trager treatment intervention, Outcome 3 NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcome).
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Analysis 5.3

Comparison 5 Acupuncture versus sham acupuncture and Trager treatment intervention, Outcome 3 NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcome).

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Comparison 5 Acupuncture versus sham acupuncture and Trager treatment intervention, Outcome 4 NRS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome).
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Analysis 5.4

Comparison 5 Acupuncture versus sham acupuncture and Trager treatment intervention, Outcome 4 NRS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome).

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Comparison 6 Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) versus sham TENS, Outcome 1 DDS neurogenic pain intensity (short‐term outcomes).
Figuras y tablas -
Analysis 6.1

Comparison 6 Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) versus sham TENS, Outcome 1 DDS neurogenic pain intensity (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 6 Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) versus sham TENS, Outcome 2 DDS musculoskeletal pain intensity (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 6.2

Comparison 6 Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) versus sham TENS, Outcome 2 DDS musculoskeletal pain intensity (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 1 CPG, pain Intensity (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 7.1

Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 1 CPG, pain Intensity (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 2 CPG, pain‐related disability (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 7.2

Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 2 CPG, pain‐related disability (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 3 HADS, anxiety (short‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 7.3

Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 3 HADS, anxiety (short‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 4 CPG, pain intensity (long‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 7.4

Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 4 CPG, pain intensity (long‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 5 CPG, pain‐related disability (long‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 7.5

Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 5 CPG, pain‐related disability (long‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 6 HADS, anxiety (long‐term outcomes).
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Analysis 7.6

Comparison 7 Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control, Outcome 6 HADS, anxiety (long‐term outcomes).

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Comparison 1. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 VAS or NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcome) Show forest plot

2

57

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

‐1.90 [‐3.48, ‐0.33]

2 VAS anxiety 0‐10 (short‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

3 VAS or NRS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome) Show forest plot

2

57

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

‐1.87 [‐3.30, ‐0.45]

4 VAS anxiety 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

5 NRS 0‐10 (long‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

39

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

‐0.73 [‐1.82, 0.35]
Figuras y tablas -
Comparison 1. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) versus sham tDCS
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Comparison 2. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcome) Show forest plot

3

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Totals not selected

2 BPI (short‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

3 BDI (short‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

4 NRS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

5 BPI (mid‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

6 BDI (mid‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

7 NRS 0‐10 (long‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

8 BPI (long‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only
Figuras y tablas -
Comparison 2. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus sham rTMS
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Comparison 3. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) versus sham CES

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 Short‐term outcome NRS/BPI pain intensity subscale Show forest plot

2

138

Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.06 [‐0.28, 0.39]

2 Sensitivity analysis NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only
Figuras y tablas -
Comparison 3. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) versus sham CES
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Comparison 4. Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 WUSPI (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

2 VAS 0‐10 (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

3 SF‐36 (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

4 CES‐D (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

5 SQOL (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

6 PQOL (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

7 WUSPI (mid‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

8 VAS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

9 SQOL (mid‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

10 SF‐36 and VAS (short‐term outcomes, standardised mean difference) Show forest plot

2

Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

Totals not selected

11 WUSPI and VAS (short‐term outcomes, standardised mean difference) Show forest plot

2

Std. Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

Totals not selected
Figuras y tablas -
Comparison 4. Exercise programme versus wait list control or no intervention
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Comparison 5. Acupuncture versus sham acupuncture and Trager treatment intervention

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 WUSPI (short‐term outcome) Show forest plot

2

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

Totals not selected

2 WUSPI (mid‐term outcome) Show forest plot

2

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

Totals not selected

3 NRS 0‐10 (short‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

4 NRS 0‐10 (mid‐term outcome) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only
Figuras y tablas -
Comparison 5. Acupuncture versus sham acupuncture and Trager treatment intervention
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Comparison 6. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) versus sham TENS

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 DDS neurogenic pain intensity (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

Totals not selected

1.1 Neutral expectation

1

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

1.2 Positive expectation

1

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

2 DDS musculoskeletal pain intensity (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

Totals not selected

2.1 Neutral expectation

1

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

2.2 Positive expectation

1

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]
Figuras y tablas -
Comparison 6. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) versus sham TENS
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Comparison 7. Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 CPG, pain Intensity (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

2 CPG, pain‐related disability (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

3 HADS, anxiety (short‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

4 CPG, pain intensity (long‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

5 CPG, pain‐related disability (long‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

6 HADS, anxiety (long‐term outcomes) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

Subtotals only
Figuras y tablas -
Comparison 7. Multi‐disciplinary cognitive‐behavioural programme versus wait list control
Ir a la tabla de la revisión