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Message from one of the participants of the Public and patient involvement consultation of service user perspectives on tardive dyskinesia research.
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Figure 1

Message from one of the participants of the Public and patient involvement consultation of service user perspectives on tardive dyskinesia research.

Study flow diagram for 2015 and 2017 searches.
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Figure 2

Study flow diagram for 2015 and 2017 searches.

'Risk of bias, summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
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Figure 3

'Risk of bias, summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.

'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
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Figure 4

'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement (50% or more change on any validated TD scale).
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 1.1

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement (50% or more change on any validated TD scale).

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2a. Not any improvement (as assessed by rater).
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Analysis 1.2

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2a. Not any improvement (as assessed by rater).

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 2b. Not any improvement (as assessed by self report).
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Analysis 1.3

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 2b. Not any improvement (as assessed by self report).

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Tardive dyskinesia: 3a. Average endpoint score on AIMS (low score = better).
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 1.4

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Tardive dyskinesia: 3a. Average endpoint score on AIMS (low score = better).

Study

Intervention

Mean

SD

N

Comments

deanol ‐ more than 6 weeks

Tarsy 1977

Deanol

10

5.48

4

Tarsy 1977

Placebo

10

0

1

The confidence interval of mean difference was not estimable because the placebo group only had one participant.

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Analysis 1.5

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Tardive dyskinesia: 3b. Average endpoint score on modified Simpson TDRS (low score = better).

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 6 Tardive dyskinesia: 4a. Deterioration (as assessed by rater).
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Analysis 1.6

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 6 Tardive dyskinesia: 4a. Deterioration (as assessed by rater).

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 7 Tardive dyskinesia: 4b. Deterioration (as assessed by self report).
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Analysis 1.7

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 7 Tardive dyskinesia: 4b. Deterioration (as assessed by self report).

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 8 Global outcome: Death for any reason.
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Analysis 1.8

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 8 Global outcome: Death for any reason.

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 9 Global outcome: Intervention not useful as assessed by Global Usefulness Rating (GUR).
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Analysis 1.9

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 9 Global outcome: Intervention not useful as assessed by Global Usefulness Rating (GUR).

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 10 Global state: Average endpoint score on CGI (low score = better).
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Analysis 1.10

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 10 Global state: Average endpoint score on CGI (low score = better).

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 11 Mental state: Deterioration.
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Analysis 1.11

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 11 Mental state: Deterioration.

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 12 Adverse effects: Any.
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Analysis 1.12

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 12 Adverse effects: Any.

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 13 Adverse effects: Various specific.
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Analysis 1.13

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 13 Adverse effects: Various specific.

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 14 Leaving the study early.
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Analysis 1.14

Comparison 1 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 14 Leaving the study early.

Comparison 2 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus OTHER CHOLINERGIC DRUGS, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 2a. Not any improvement (as assessed by rater) ‐ less than 6 weeks.
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Analysis 2.1

Comparison 2 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus OTHER CHOLINERGIC DRUGS, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 2a. Not any improvement (as assessed by rater) ‐ less than 6 weeks.

Comparison 2 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus OTHER CHOLINERGIC DRUGS, Outcome 2 Global outcome: Death for any reason ‐ less than 6 weeks.
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Analysis 2.2

Comparison 2 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus OTHER CHOLINERGIC DRUGS, Outcome 2 Global outcome: Death for any reason ‐ less than 6 weeks.

Comparison 2 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus OTHER CHOLINERGIC DRUGS, Outcome 3 Leaving the study early ‐ less than 6 weeks.
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Analysis 2.3

Comparison 2 CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus OTHER CHOLINERGIC DRUGS, Outcome 3 Leaving the study early ‐ less than 6 weeks.

Table 2. Excluded studies which are relevant to other reviews

Excluded study

Comparison

Treatment category

Relevant review

#1

#2

Nasrallah 1986

Alpha‐methyl‐p‐tyrosine (AMPT)

versus choline chloride

Amino acid

Organic salt

versus hydroxytryptophan

Amino acid (serotonin precursor)

versus valproic acid

Mood stabilisers

versus L‐DOPA

Amino acid

Lieberman 1988

Benztropine versus bromocriptine

Anticholinergic

Dopamine agonist

Bromocriptine versus haloperidol

Dopamine agonist

Antipsychotic

Nasrallah 1986

Choline chloride

versus L‐DOPA

Organic salt

Amino acid

versus hydroxytryptophan

versus valproic

Anticonvulsant

Jus 1978

Deanol

versus lithium carbonate

Antidepressant

Organic salt

versus placebo

Placebo

Chien 1978

versus sodium valproate

Anticonvulsant

versus oxpertine

Antipsychotic

Nasrallah 1986

Hydroxytryptophan versus L‐DOPA

Amino acid

Amino acid

L‐DOPA versus valproic acid

Anticonvulsant

Jus 1978

Lithium carbonate versus placebo

Mood stabiliser

Placebo

Chien 1978

Oxypertine versus sodium valproate

Antipsychotic

Anticonvulsant

Figures and Tables -
Table 2. Excluded studies which are relevant to other reviews
Table 3. Suggestions for design of future study

Methods

Allocation: randomised, with sequence generation and concealment of allocation clearly described.
Blindness: double, tested.
Duration: 12 months beyond end of intervention at least.
Raters: independent.

Participants

People with antipsychotic‐induced tardive dyskinesia.*
Age: any.
Sex: both.
History: any.
N = 300.**

Interventions

Specific cholinergic drug (N = 150) versus placebo (N = 150)

Outcomes

Tardive dyskinesia: any clinically important improvement in TD, any improvement, deterioration.***
Adverse effects: no clinically significant extrapyramidal adverse effects ‐ any time period***, use of any antiparkinsonism drugs, other important adverse events.
Leaving the study early.
Service outcomes: admitted, number of admissions, length of hospitalisation, contacts with psychiatric services.
Compliance with drugs.
Economic evaluations: cost‐effectiveness, cost‐benefit.
General state: relapse, frequency and intensity of minor and major exacerbations.
Social confidence, social inclusion, social networks, or personalised quality of life: binary measure
Distress among relatives: binary measure.
Burden on family: binary measure.

Notes

* This could be diagnosed by clinical decision. If funds were permitting all participants could be screened using operational criteria, otherwise a random sample should suffice.

** Size of study with sufficient power to highlight about a 10% difference between groups for primary outcome.
*** Primary outcome. The same applies to the measure of primary outcome as for diagnosis. Not everyone may need to have operational criteria applied if clinical impression is proved to be accurate.

Figures and Tables -
Table 3. Suggestions for design of future study
Summary of findings for the main comparison. CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO for antipsychotic‐induced tardive dyskinesia

CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO for antipsychotic‐induced tardive dyskinesia

Patient or population: people with various psychiatric disorders (mainly schizophrenia) and antipsychotic‐induced tardive dyskinesia
Settings: mostly inpatients in Australia, Canada, Germany, Japan, Switzerland and the USA.
Intervention: CHOLINERGIC DRUGS (deanol, donepezil, galantamine, meclofenoxate, lecithin) versus PLACEBO

Outcomes

Illustrative comparative risks* (95% CI)

Relative effect
(95% CI)

No of Participants
(studies)

Quality of the evidence
(GRADE)

Comments

Assumed risk

Corresponding risk

PLACEBO

CHOLINERGIC DRUGS

Tardive dyskinesia: No clinically important improvement

follow‐up: 2 to 12 weeks

1000 per 1000

890 per 1000
(650 to 1000)

RR 0.89
(0.65 to 1.23)

27
(4 studies)

⊕⊝⊝⊝
very low1,2

None of the subgroups that reported on this outcome (deanol, donepezil, lecithin) found a significant difference between cholinergic drug and placebo.

Tardive dyskinesia: Deterioration

follow‐up: 9 days to 12 weeks

116 per 1000

129 per 1000
(64 to 260)

RR 1.11
(0.55 to 2.24)

147
(8 studies)

⊕⊕⊝⊝
low1,3

None of the subgroups that reported on this outcome (deanol, donepezil, lecithin, meclofenoxate) found a significant difference between cholinergic drug and placebo.

Mental state: Deterioration

follow‐up: 11 days to 12 weeks

56 per 1000

28 per 1000
(6 to 145)

RR 0.50
(0.10 to 2.61)

77
(5 studies)

⊕⊝⊝⊝
very low1,2

None of the subgroups that reported on this outcome (deanol, lecithin) found a significant difference between cholinergic drug and placebo.

Adverse effects: Any adverse events

follow‐up: 9 days to 8 weeks

98 per 1000

55 per 1000
(15 to 210)

RR 0.56
(0.15 to 2.14)

106
(4 studies)

⊕⊝⊝⊝
very low1,2

None of the subgroups that reported on this outcome (donepezil, lecithin, meclofenoxate) found a significant difference between cholinergic drug and placebo.

Acceptability of treatment: Leaving the study early

follow‐up: 9 days to 12 weeks

90 per 1000

98 per 1000
(50 to 188)

RR 1.09
(0.56 to 2.10)

288
(12 studies)

⊕⊝⊝⊝
very low1,3,4

None of the subgroups that reported on this outcome (deanol, donepezil, galantamine, meclofenoxate, lecithin) found a significant difference between cholinergic drug and placebo.

Social confidence, social inclusion, social networks, or personalised quality of life ‐ not reported

None of the included studies reported on this outcome.

*The basis for the assumed risk (e.g. the median control group risk across studies) is provided in footnotes. The corresponding risk (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its CI).
CI: Confidence interval; RR: Risk ratio;

GRADE Working Group grades of evidence
High quality: Further research is very unlikely to change our confidence in the estimate of effect.
Moderate quality: Further research is likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate of effect and may change the estimate.
Low quality: Further research is very likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate of effect and is likely to change the estimate.
Very low quality: We are very uncertain about the estimate.

1 Downgraded one step for risk of bias: for many studies it was unclear whether randomisation procedure and allocation concealment were carried out adequately.
2 Downgraded two steps for imprecision: very few events and participants, wide CIs that include both no effect and appreciable benefit for the intervention.
3 Downgraded one step for imprecision: wide CIs that include appreciable benefit for both the intervention and the control group, as well as no effect.
4 Downgraded one step for indirectness: leaving the study early is not a direct measure of acceptability of the intervention.

Figures and Tables -
Summary of findings for the main comparison. CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO for antipsychotic‐induced tardive dyskinesia
Table 1. Other reviews in the series

Interventions

Reference

Anticholinergic medication

Soares‐Weiser 1997

Benzodiazepines

Bhoopathi 2006

Calcium channel blockers

Essali 2011

Cholinergic medication

This review

Gamma‐aminobutyric acid agonists

Alabed 2011

Miscellaneous treatments

Soares‐Weiser 2003

Neuroleptic reduction and/or cessation and neuroleptics

Soares‐Weiser 2006

Non‐neuroleptic catecholaminergic drugs

El‐Sayeh 2006

Vitamin E

Soares‐Weiser 2011

Figures and Tables -
Table 1. Other reviews in the series
Comparison 1. CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement (50% or more change on any validated TD scale) Show forest plot

4

27

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.89 [0.65, 1.23]

1.1 deanol ‐ more than 6 weeks

2

11

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.91 [0.51, 1.60]

1.2 donepezil ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

10

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.0 [0.70, 1.43]

1.3 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

6

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.71 [0.31, 1.66]

2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2a. Not any improvement (as assessed by rater) Show forest plot

9

180

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.87 [0.71, 1.07]

2.1 deanol ‐ less than 6 weeks

3

63

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.83 [0.58, 1.18]

2.2 deanol ‐ more than 6 weeks

2

11

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.81 [0.26, 2.57]

2.3 donepezil ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

10

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.33 [0.72, 2.44]

2.4 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks

2

36

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.87 [0.63, 1.21]

2.5 meclofenoxate ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

60

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.84 [0.55, 1.27]

3 Tardive dyskinesia: 2b. Not any improvement (as assessed by self report) Show forest plot

1

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

3.1 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

30

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.92 [0.62, 1.36]

4 Tardive dyskinesia: 3a. Average endpoint score on AIMS (low score = better) Show forest plot

7

171

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

‐0.12 [‐0.44, 0.21]

4.1 deanol ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

6

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.42 [‐0.29, 3.13]

4.2 galantamine ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

35

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.5 [‐0.44, 3.44]

4.3 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

6

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

‐1.07 [‐2.21, 0.07]

4.4 lecithin ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

14

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

‐0.10 [‐1.04, 0.84]

4.5 meclofenoxate ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

60

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

‐0.19 [‐0.58, 0.20]

4.6 rivastigmine ‐ less than 8 weeks

1

40

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

2.20 [‐1.16, 5.56]

4.7 donepezil ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

10

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.10 [‐4.22, 6.42]

5 Tardive dyskinesia: 3b. Average endpoint score on modified Simpson TDRS (low score = better) Show forest plot

Other data

No numeric data

5.1 deanol ‐ more than 6 weeks

Other data

No numeric data

6 Tardive dyskinesia: 4a. Deterioration (as assessed by rater) Show forest plot

8

147

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.11 [0.55, 2.24]

6.1 deanol ‐ less than 6 weeks

2

30

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.67 [0.48, 5.76]

6.2 deanol ‐ more than 6 weeks

2

11

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.67 [0.20, 2.18]

6.3 donepezil ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

10

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.67 [0.06, 7.85]

6.4 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks

2

36

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.0 [0.16, 6.31]

6.5 meclofenoxate ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

60

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.87 [0.18, 19.55]

7 Tardive dyskinesia: 4b. Deterioration (as assessed by self report) Show forest plot

1

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

7.1 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

30

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

3.0 [0.13, 68.26]

8 Global outcome: Death for any reason Show forest plot

11

278

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

8.1 deanol ‐ less than 6 weeks

4

83

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

8.2 deanol ‐ more than 6 weeks

2

11

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

8.3 galantamine ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

38

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

8.4 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks

3

86

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

8.5 meclofenoxate ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

60

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

9 Global outcome: Intervention not useful as assessed by Global Usefulness Rating (GUR) Show forest plot

1

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

9.1 meclofenoxate ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

60

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.89 [0.59, 1.32]

10 Global state: Average endpoint score on CGI (low score = better) Show forest plot

1

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

10.1 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

31

Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI)

‐0.43 [‐1.36, 0.50]

11 Mental state: Deterioration Show forest plot

5

77

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.5 [0.10, 2.61]

11.1 deanol ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

10

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.33 [0.02, 6.65]

11.2 deanol ‐ more than 6 weeks

2

11

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.2 [0.08, 18.75]

11.3 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks

2

56

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.33 [0.01, 7.81]

12 Adverse effects: Any Show forest plot

4

106

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.56 [0.15, 2.14]

12.1 donepezil ‐ less than 6 weeks ‐ any adverse events

1

10

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

12.2 lecithin ‐ more than 6 weeks ‐ any other adverse effects, undesirable body odour, sedation

2

36

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

12.3 meclofenoxate ‐ more than 6 weeks ‐ any adverse events

1

60

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.56 [0.15, 2.14]

13 Adverse effects: Various specific Show forest plot

8

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

Subtotals only

13.1 deanol ‐ less than 6 weeks ‐ gastric adverse effects

5

61

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

9.0 [0.55, 147.95]

13.2 deanol ‐ less than 6 weeks ‐ sedation, periferal cholinergic effects, undesirable body odour

6

94

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

6.83 [0.99, 47.25]

13.3 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks ‐ GI adverse effects

2

36

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

14 Leaving the study early Show forest plot

12

288

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.09 [0.56, 2.10]

14.1 deanol ‐ less than 6 weeks

4

83

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.33 [0.02, 6.65]

14.2 deanol ‐ more than 6 weeks

2

11

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

1.2 [0.08, 18.75]

14.3 donepezil ‐ less than 6 weeks

1

10

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

14.4 galantamine ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

38

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

3.0 [0.96, 9.39]

14.5 lecithin ‐ less than 6 weeks

3

86

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.5 [0.17, 1.45]

14.6 meclofenoxate ‐ more than 6 weeks

1

60

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

Figures and Tables -
Comparison 1. CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus PLACEBO
Comparison 2. CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus OTHER CHOLINERGIC DRUGS

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 Tardive dyskinesia: 2a. Not any improvement (as assessed by rater) ‐ less than 6 weeks Show forest plot

1

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

Totals not selected

1.1 deanol 2g vs deanol 1g

1

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

2 Global outcome: Death for any reason ‐ less than 6 weeks Show forest plot

1

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

Totals not selected

2.1 deanol 2g vs deanol 1g

1

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

3 Leaving the study early ‐ less than 6 weeks Show forest plot

1

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

Totals not selected

3.1 deanol 2g vs deanol 1g

1

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Fixed, 95% CI)

0.0 [0.0, 0.0]

Figures and Tables -
Comparison 2. CHOLINERGIC DRUGS versus OTHER CHOLINERGIC DRUGS