Recipients

Why

What (materials)

What (procedures)

Who provided

How and where

When and how much

Strategies to improve or maintain intervention fidelity; tailoring and modification

Extent of intervention fidelity

Tershakovec 1998 (RCT)

4‐ to 9‐year‐old children with hypercholesterolaemia (plasma total cholesterol > 4.55 mmol/L, fasting plasma LDL‐C 2.77‐4.24 mmol/L for boys and 2.90‐4.24 mmol/L for girls), at ≥ 85% of ideal body weight.

Limited dietary fat was recommended for children aged > 2 years, but there were concerns that lower fat intake of children may affect their growth. Trial evaluated growth of children with hypercholesterolaemia completing an innovative, physician‐initiated, home‐based nutrition education programme or standard nutrition counselling that aimed to lower dietary fat intake.

Nutrition education programme complied with recommendations of the National Cholesterol Education Program Expert Panel on Blood Cholesterol Levels in Children and Adolescents.

Children and ≥ 1 parent (usually mother) attended 45‐ to 60‐minute counselling session with paediatric dietician. Children and parents in at‐risk control and not‐at‐risk control groups were not provided educational information or materials.

1) Not described; 2) paediatric registered dieticians.

1) Audiotape stories and picture books and follow‐up paper/pencil activities for children as well as manual for parents. Story and activities to be completed each week; 2) face‐to‐face individual counselling by a dietician.

1) At home; 2) paediatric practice.

10 weeks with 1) talking‐book lesson; 2) 45‐60 minutes counselling session each week.

Not described

Tailoring and modification of intervention during trial were not described.

1) 71/88; 2) 77/86 completed intervention programmes and returned for evaluation at 3 months after baseline.

Obarzanek 2001 (RCT)

Prepubertal boys and girls aged 8‐11 years with LDL‐C levels ≥ 80th and < 98th percentiles for age and sex percentiles of the Lipid Research Clinics population.

Aimed to assess feasibility, safety, efficacy and acceptability of lowering dietary intake of total fat, saturated fat and cholesterol to decrease LDL‐C levels.

Intervention group received dietary counselling sessions based on National Cholesterol Education Programme guidelines: 28% of energy from total fat, < 8% from saturated fat, > 9% from polyunsaturated fat, and < 75 mg/1000 kcal of cholesterol per day, not to exceed 150 mg/day. Guidebooks including activities and recipes on diets and food recommendations given to participants and their families.

In first 6 months, 6 weekly and then 5 biweekly group sessions were led by nutritionists and behaviourists, and 2 individual visits were held with nutritionist. Over second 6 months, 4 group and 2 individual sessions were held. During 2nd and 3rd years, group and individual maintenance sessions were held 4‐6 times/year, with monthly telephone contacts between group sessions. During 4th year of follow‐up, 2 group events + 2 individual visits conducted with additional telephone contacts as appropriate.

Nutritionists and behaviourists

1) Group sessions and 2) individual visits were held, accompanied by telephone contacts in between sessions.

1) At clinics, 2) at home

6 weekly, 5 biweekly group sessions and 2 individual visits during first 6 months; 4 group and 2 individual sessions during second 6 months; 4‐6 maintenance sessions with telephone contacts between sessions during 2nd and 3rd years; 2 group and 2 individual sessions with telephone contacts as appropriate by 4th year.

By 4th year of follow‐up, individual visits used an individualised approach based on motivational interviewing and stage of change for increasingly busy teenagers.

Tailoring and modification of intervention during trial not described.

295/334 attended the last visit (> 5 years' follow‐up).

Mihas 2010

Students aged 12‐13 years from an urban area in Greece.

Aimed to evaluate the short‐term (15‐day) and long‐term (12‐month) effects of a 12‐week school‐based health and nutrition interventional programme regarding energy and nutrient intake, dietary changes and BMI.

Teaching material for teachers and workbooks for students on nutrition‐dietary habits and physical activity and health based on Social Learning Theory Model were developed and distributed to teacher and each student.

Multicomponent workbooks covering mainly dietary issues, but also dental health hygiene and consumption attitudes, were produced with each student being supplied a workbook. The class home economics teacher implemented 12‐hour‐classroom curriculum incorporating health and nutrition promotion during 12 weeks. 2 meetings were conducted with parents (given screening results of children; presentations given on dietary habits of children to improve health profile of children and prevent development of chronic diseases in the future). Cues and reinforcing messages in the form of posters and displays were provided in the classroom.

Educational intervention (classroom curriculum) delivered by class home economics teachers who were trained and supervised by health visitor or family doctor.

Classroom curriculum; cues and reinforcing messages in the form of posters and displays provided in classroom; nutrition education meetings for parents in group.

At school.

12 hours of classroom material, 2 meetings for parents during a 12‐week period.

Health visitor or family doctor supervised the programme implementation of class home economics teachers who were given 2 × 3‐hour seminars with aims to familiarise teachers about objectives of intervention and their role therein, and to increase their awareness of significance of incorporating health and nutrition in their curriculum before delivering the intervention.

Tailoring and modification of intervention during trial not described.

107/109 participation rates at 15‐days' follow‐up and 98/109 at 12 months' follow‐up.

Outcome

Study ID

Follow‐up from baseline

Baseline

Mean (SD)^a

6 months

MD

(95% CI)

> 6 to 12 months

MD

(95% CI)

> 1 to 2 years

MD

(95% CI)

> 2 to 5 years

MD

(95% CI)

> 5 years

MD

(95% CI)

Weight‐for‐age z‐score^b

Tershakovec 1998 (RCT)

0.04 (1.02); 0.26 (0.93)

‐0.14

(‐0.45 to 0.17)

‐0.18^b

(‐0.51 to 0.15)

ND

ND

ND

Body weight (kg)^b

Obarzanek 2001 (RCT)

32.7 (6.8); 33.1 (6.9)

ND

‐0.50^b

(‐1.78 to 0.78)

ND

‐0.60

(‐2.39 to 1.19)

ND

BMI (kg/m²)

Obarzanek 2001 (RCT)

17.5 (2.3); 17.6 (2.4)

ND

‐0.30

(‐0.75 to 0.15)

ND

0.00

(‐0.63 to 0.63)

‐0.10

(‐0.75 to 0.55)

Mihas 2010

24 (3.1); 24.3 (3.3)

ND

ND

‐1.50

(‐2.45 to ‐0.55)

ND

ND

Obarzanek 2001 (RCT)

Outcome

Follow‐up from baseline

Baseline

Mean (SD)^a

6 months

MD

(95% CI)

> 6 to 12 months

MD

(95% CI)

> 1 to 2 years

MD

(95% CI)

> 2 to 5 years

MD

(95% CI)

> 5 years

MD

(95% CI)

Total cholesterol (mmol/L)

5.17 (0.38); 5.17 (0.38)

ND

‐0.15

(‐0.24 to ‐0.06)

ND

‐0.06

(‐0.17 to 0.05)

‐0.02

(‐0.13 to 0.09)

LDL‐C (mmol/L)

3.38 (0.31); 3.38 (0.3)

ND

‐0.12

(‐0.20 to ‐0.04)

ND

‐0.09

(‐0.17 to ‐0.01)

0.01

(‐0.01 to 0.03)

HDL‐C (mmol/L)

1.48 (0.28); 1.47 (0.29)

ND

‐0.03

(‐0.08 to 0.02)

ND

‐0.01

(‐0.06 to 0.04)

0.02

(‐0.03 to 0.07)

Triglycerides (mmol/L)

0.9 (0.33); 0.92 (0.32)

ND

‐0.01

(‐0.08 to 0.06)

ND

0.06

(‐0.04 to 0.16)

0.03

(‐0.06 to 0.12)

SBP (mmHg)

97.31 (9.1); 97.55 (9.4)

ND

‐0.40

(‐1.70 to 0.90)

ND

‐0.40

(‐1.84 to 1.04)

ND

DBP (mmHg)

61.97 (9.54); 61.67 (10.23)

ND

‐0.50

(‐2.00 to 1.00)

ND

‐0.90

(‐2.30 to 0.50)

ND

Outcome

Study ID

Follow‐up from baseline

Baseline

Mean (SD)^a

6 months

MD

(95% CI)

> 6 to 12 months

MD

(95% CI)

> 1 to 2 years

MD

(95% CI)

> 2 to 5 years

MD

(95% CI)

> 5 years

MD

(95% CI)

Height‐for‐age z‐score^b

Tershakovec 1998 (RCT)

‐0.12 (1.02); 0.06 (0.93)

‐0.02

(‐0.06 to 0.02)

‐0.05^b

(‐0.08 to‐0.02)

ND

ND

ND

Height (cm)^b

Obarzanek 2001 (RCT)

136.2 (6.8); 136.5 (7)

ND

0.00^b

(‐1.11 to 1.11)

ND

‐0.10

(‐1.54 to 1.34)

‐0.06

(‐2.06 to 0.86)

Outcome

Study ID

Follow‐up from baseline

Baseline

Mean (SD)^a

6 months

MD

(95% CI)

> 6 to 12 months

MD

(95% CI)

> 1 to 2 years

MD

(95% CI)

> 2 to 5 years

MD

(95% CI)

> 5 years

MD

(95% CI)

Energy (kJ)

Obarzanek 2001 (RCT)

7364 (1832); 7229 (1841)

ND

‐356.00

(‐655.22 to ‐56.78)

ND

‐602.00

(‐943.94 to ‐260.06)

ND

Mihas 2010

8503.3 (1419.3); 8583.7 (1522.4)

ND

ND

‐645.50

(‐1075.66 to ‐215.34)

ND

ND

Fat (%TE)

Obarzanek 2001 (RCT)

33.4 (5.5); 34 (4.9)

ND

‐4.60

(‐5.50 to ‐3.70)

ND

‐4.40

(‐5.25 to ‐3.55)

ND

Mihas 2010

35.4 (4.7); 36.2 (5.2)

ND

ND

‐5.60

(‐6.91 to ‐4.29)

ND

ND

Saturated fat (%TE)

Obarzanek 2001 (RCT)

12.5 (2.7); 12.7 (2.5)

ND

‐2.60

(‐3.02 to ‐2.18)

ND

‐2.10

(‐2.49 to ‐1.71)

ND

Mihas 2010

12.4 (2.0); 12.8 (2.3)

ND

ND

‐3.10 (‐3.78 to ‐2.42)

ND

ND

Protein (%TE)

Obarzanek 2001 (RCT)

14.8 (2.8); 14.6 (2.7)

ND

1.00

(0.52 to 1.48)

ND

0.90

(0.38 to 1.42)

ND

Mihas 2010

15.3 (1.4); 14.9 (1.8)

ND

ND

1.30

(0.80 to 1.80)

ND

ND

Carbohydrates (%TE)

Obarzanek 2001 (RCT)

53.0 (6.7); 52.8 (6.2)

ND

3.70

(2.63 to 4.77)

ND

3.30

(2.25 to 4.35)

ND

Mihas 2010

49.7 (6.2); 48.4 (6.8)

ND

ND

3.00

(1.16 to 4.84)

ND

ND

Study ID;

mean age at baseline;

analysis

Outcome

Outcome units

Time point (year)

Exposure

Exposure unit

Results of association (all reported values)

Direction;^a

energy intake adjusted (yes/no)

Matched groups or adjusted for (or both)

Weight at 1 year: 4 cohort studies; 4 analyses (n ˜ 1949) in boys and girls aged 2‐11 years

Niinikoski 1997a

2 years old;

mean end values per group

Relative weight^b

%

1

Total fat intake (single 4‐day dietary record at baseline, 1.5 and 2 years)

LF (27.7‐28.7 %TE;

HF (> 28.7 %TE)

n overall = 740 (LF = 35, HF = 705); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 1 (8); HF = 1 (8).

At 1 year: LF = 1 (7); HF = 1 (8); P = 0.81.

After 1 year, no difference in relative weight change of children with LF intake compared to children with HF intakes.

0

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Schwandt 2011

6.8 years old;

regression

Weight

kg

1

Total fat intake (single 7‐day weighed dietary record at baseline and 1 year)

g

n overall = 411; regression result.

B = 0.09, SE 0.019; P < 0.05.

After 1 year, for every 1 g increase in total fat intake of children, weight will increase by 0.09 kg.

+

No

Adjusted for age, gender and physical activity.

Butte 2007

11 years old;

regression

Weight

kg/year

1

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour dietary recalls at baseline)

%TE

n overall = 798; regression result.

B = 0.044, SE 0.018; P = 0.014.

For every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat in children, weight will increase by 0.04 kg/year.

+

No

Adjusted for gender, age, age squared, Tanner stage and BMI.

Tershakovec 1998 (cohort)

6.2 years old;

mean end values per group

Weight

z‐score

1

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour dietary recalls at baseline and 1 year)

LF quintile (24 %TE)

HF quintile (34%TE)

n overall = NR (LF = NR, HF = NR); mean end values (SD NR).

Baseline: LF = ‐0.21; HF = 0.44.

At 1 year: LF = ‐0.14; HF = 0.45.

After 1 year, weight‐for‐age of children with LF intake will increase by 0.07 z‐scores on average, and by 0.01 z‐scores in children with HF intake.

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Weight at > 1to 2 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 126) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years old;

mean end values per group

Weight

kg

2

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary records at baseline and 2 years)

LF < 30%TE; HF > 35%TE

n overall = 126 (LF = 14, HF = 112); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 12.6 (1); HF = 12.8 (1.7).

At 2 years: LF (n = 20) 18.4 (2.6); HF (n = 76) 17.9 (2.1); P > 0.05.

After 2 years, weight of children with LF intake will increase by 5.8 kg on average, and by 5.1 kg on average in children with HF intake.

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Weight at > 2to 5 years: 4 cohort studies; 4 analyses (n = 13,802) in boys and girls aged 2‐14 years

Shea 1993

4.4 years old;

mean change per group

Weight

kg/year

2.1

Total fat intake (multiple FFQs at baseline)

LF ≤ 30%TE; HF > 30%TE

n overall = 215 (LF = 37, HF = 178); mean change (SD).

Baseline: NR.

LF = 3 (1.3); HF = 2.8 (1.3); P > 0.05

MD 0.2 (95% CI ‐0.26 to 0.66).

After 2 years, children with LF intake will gain on average 0.2 kg/year more than children with HF intakes.

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Berkey 2005

9‐14 years‐old;

regression

Weight

kg, 1‐year change

3

Total fat intake (single FFQ at baseline, 1, 2 and 3 years)

g

n overall = 12,829; only reported as text.

After 3 years, "Dairy fat was not a stronger predictor of weight gain than other types of fat, and no fat (dairy, vegetable, or other) intake was significantly associated with weight gain after energy adjustment, nor was total fat intake."

0

Yes

Adjusted for age, ethnicity, pubertal stage, annual height growth, baseline BMI and same‐year physical activity.

Obarzanek 1997 (cohort)

9.6 years old;

regression

Weight

kg

3

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline, 1 and 3 years)

%TE

n overall = 632; regression results.

B = ‐0.0011, P = 0.8.

After 3 years, for every 1% increase in total energy intake from total fat of children, weight will decrease by 0.0011 kg.

‐

Yes

Adjusted for gender, physical activity, treatment, visit number, other sources of energy than fat and interactions: fat intake‐by‐treatment, fat intake‐by‐gender, fat intake‐by‐visit number and visit number‐by‐treatment.

Magarey 2001

2 years‐old;

mean end values per group

Weight

kg

4

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years)

LF < 30%TE; HF > 35%TE

n overall = 126 (LF = 14, HF = 112); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 12.6 (1); HF = 12.8 (1.7).

At 4 years: LF (n = 14) 20.7 (3.4); HF (n = 88) 21.7 (3); P > 0.05.

After 4 years, weight of children with LF intake will increase by 8.1 kg on average, and by 8.9 kg on average in children with HF intake.

+

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Weight at > 5to 10 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 126) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 yrs‐old;

mean end values per group

Weight

kg

6

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years; single 4‐day weighed dietary record at 6 years)

LF < 30 %TE; HF > 35 %TE

n overall = 126 (LF = 14, HF = 112); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 12.6 (1); HF = 12.8 (1.7).

At 6 years: LF (n = 13) 29.4 (5.9); HF (n = 72) 26.7 (4.3); P > 0.05.

After 6 years, weight of children with LF intake will increase by 16.8 kg on average, and by 13.9 kg on average in children with HF intake.

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Study ID;

mean age at baseline; analysis

Outcome

Outcome units

Time point (year)

Exposure

Exposure unit

Results of association (all reported values)

Direction;^a energy intake adjusted? (yes/no)

Matched groups or adjusted for (or both)

BMI at 1 year: 3 cohort studies; 4 analyses (n ˜ 11,180) in boys and girls aged 7‐14 years

Berkey 2005

9‐14 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²,

1‐year change

1

Total fat intake (single FFQ at baseline and 1 year)

g

n girls = 6149; regression result.

B = 0.0008, SE 0.0016, P = 632.

After 1 year, for every 1 g increase in total fat intake, BMI will increase by 0.0008 kg/m² in girls.

+

Yes

Adjusted for total energy intake, age, ethnicity, pubertal stage, annual height growth, baseline BMI and physical activity.

Berkey 2005

9‐14 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²,

1‐year change

1

Total fat intake (single FFQ at baseline and 1 year)

g

n boys = 4620; regression result.

B = ‐0.0015, SE 0.0017, P = 0.375.

After 1 year, for every 1 g increase in the total fat intake, BMI will decrease by 0.0015 kg/m² in boys.

‐

Yes

Adjusted for total energy intake, age, ethnicity, pubertal stage, annual height growth, baseline BMI and physical activity.

Bogaert 2003

8.6 years; regression

BMI

z‐score

1

Total fat intake (single 3‐day record at baseline)

%TE

n overall = NR; regression result = NR.

"We are unable to demonstrate a positive relation between dietary fat and BMI z‐score change from baseline to 12 months."

0

NR

Prognostic variables were adjusted for, but not specified which one.

Schwandt 2011^b

6.8 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²

1

Total fat intake (single 7‐day weighed record at baseline and 1 year)

g

n overall = 411; regression result.

B = 0.08, SE 0.007, P = 0.085.

After 1 year, for every 1 g increase in the total intake, BMI will increase by 0.08 kg/m².

+

No

Adjusted for age, sex and physical activity.

BMI at > 1to 2 years: 7 cohort studies; 10 analyses (n = 3347) in boys and girls aged 2‐13 years

Ambrosini 2016

3.6 years;

mean end values per group

BMI

kg/m²

1.5

Total fat intake (single 3‐day unweighed food record at baseline)

LF quintile (30.4%TE);

HF quintile (41.8 %TE)

n boys, at baseline = 438; At 1.5 years = 383 (LF = NR, HF = NR); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 16.6 (95% CI 16.4 to 16.8); HF = 16.3 (95% CI 16.1 to 16.5).

At 1.5 years: LF = 16.1 (95% CI 15.8 to 16.3); HF = 15.7 (95% CI 15.5 to 16.0).

After 18 months, average BMI decreased by 0.5 kg/m² among boys in LF intake (30.4%TE) group and by 0.6 kg/m² in boys in HF intake (41.8%TE) group.

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Ambrosini 2016

3.6 years;

mean end values per group

BMI

kg/m²

1.5

Total fat intake (single 3‐day unweighed food record at baseline)

LF quintile (30.4 %TE);

HF quintile (41.8 %TE)

n girls, at baseline = 351; at 1.5 years = 323) (LF = NR, HF = NR); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 16.6 (95% CI 16.3 to 16.9); HF = 16.4 (95% CI 16.1 to 16.7).

At 1.5 years: LF = 16.1 (95% CI 15.7 to 16.4); HF = 16.1 (95% CI 15.8 to 116.4).

After 18 months,average BMI decreased by 0.5 kg/m² among girls in LF intake group (30.4%TE) and by 0.3 kg/m² in girls in HF intake group (41.8%TE).

+

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Davison 2001

5.4 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²,

2‐years change

2

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline)

%TE

n overall = 168; regression result.

R² = 0.26, P entry = 0.01, F‐test = 9.27, df = 6, P change = 0.0001.

"Percentage of fat intake, baseline BMI, family risk of overweight, mothers’ BMI, fathers’ enjoyment of activity explained 26% of the variance in the change of BMI."

+

Yes

Adjusted for age, baseline BMI, family risk of overweight, mothers' change in BMI and fathers' enjoyment of activity.

Klesges 1995

4.4 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²,

2‐years change

2

Change (year 2 to 3 of follow‐up) in total fat intake (single FFQ at baseline, 1 and 2 years)

%TE

n overall = 146; regression result.

B = ‐0.04, P = 0.011, t value = 2.58.

After 2 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat from year 2 to 3 of follow‐up, BMI will decrease by 0.04 kg/m².

‐

No

Adjusted for age, sex, parental BMI and physical activity.

Klesges 1995

4.4 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²,

2‐years change

2

Baseline dietary fat (single FFQ)

%TE

n overall = 146; regression result.

B = 0.034, P = 0.0521, t value = 1.96.

After 2 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from baseline total fat, BMI will increase by 0.034 kg/m².

+

No

Adjusted for age, sex, parental BMI and physical activity.

Lee 2001

5 years;

mean end values; mean change per groups

BMI

kg/m²

2

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline)

LF ≤ 30%TE;

HF > 30%TE

n girls = 192 (LF = 84; HF = 108); mean end values (SD); mean change (SD).

Baseline: LF = 15.8 (1.83); HF = 16 (2.08).

At 2 years: LF = 16.4 (1.83); HF = 16.9 (3.12); change LF = 0.6 (0.92); change HF = 1.0 (2.08); P < 0.05.

MD ‐0.4 (95% CI ‐0.84 to 0.04)

After 2 years, LF intake (≤ 30%TE) will result in 0.4 kg/m² smaller increase in BMI on average compared to HF intake (> 0%TE) in girls.

+

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Lee 2012

7.3 years; regression

BMI 1st graders

kg/m²,

2‐years change

2

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline, 1 and 2 years)

%TE

n overall = 474; regression result.

B = 0.021 (95% CI ‐0.004 to 0.046), P = 0.104.

After 2 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, BMI will increase by 0.021 kg/m².

+

Yes

Adjusted for age, gender, sexual maturation at 6 years' follow‐up, baseline BMI, exercise frequency, screen time, sleep duration, meal skipping and snacking, parental BMI and SES.

Lee 2012

10 years; regression

BMI 4th graders

kg/m²,

2‐years change

2

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline, 1 and 2 years)

%TE

n overall = 1030; regression result.

B = ‐0.007 (95% CI ‐0.024 to 0.012), P = 0.449.

After 2 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, BMI will decrease by 0.007 kg/m².

‐

Yes

Adjusted for age, gender, sexual maturation at 6 years' follow‐up, baseline BMI, exercise frequency, screen time, sleep duration, meal skipping and snacking, parental BMI and SES.

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

BMI

z‐score

2

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline and 2 years)

NR

n overall = 155; regression result.

β = 0.079, P > 0.1; R² = 0.493, P < 0.0001.

After 2 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase BMI by 0.079 z‐score.

+

Yes

Adjusted for baseline BMI‐z score, gender, mother's BMI and father's BMI.

Setayeshgar 2017

12.5 years; regression

BMI

z‐score

2

Total fat intake (single 24‐hour recall at baseline)

per 10 g

n overall = 330; regression result.

β = 0.009 (95% CI ‐0.006 to ‐0.02), P = NS.

After 2 years, for every 10 g increase in total fat intake, BMI will increase by 0.009 z‐score.

+

Yes

Adjusted for baseline BMI z‐score, moderate to vigorous physical activity, vegetables and fruit, fibre, milk, sodium and added sugar intakes.

BMI at > 2to 5 years: 7 cohort studies; 11 analyses (n = 4491) in boys and girls aged 2‐14 years

Shea 1993

4.4 years;

mean change per group

BMI

kg/m² per year

2.1

Total fat intake (multiple FFQs at baseline)

LF ≤ 30%TE;

HF > 30%TE

n overall = 215 (LF = 37, HF = 178); mean change (SD).

LF = 0.2 (0.81), HF = 0.18 (0.68); P > 0.05.

MD 0.02 (95% CI ‐0.26 to 0.30).

After 25 months, LF intake (≤ 30%TE) will result in a 0.02 kg/m² per year greater increase in BMI on average, compared to HF intake (> 30%TE).

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression

BMI

z‐score

3

Energy‐dense, HF and low‐fibre dietary pattern^c (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n girls = 649; regression result.

β = 0.99 (95% CI ‐0.05 to 0.05), P = NR.

After 3 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the energy‐dense, HF and low‐fibre dietary pattern z‐score, BMI will increase by 0.99 z‐score in girls.

+

NA; exposure included energy intake

Adjusted for age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression

BMI

z‐score

3

Energy‐dense, HF and low‐fibre dietary pattern^c (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n boys = 699; regression result.

β = 0.03 (95% CI ‐0.01 to 0.08), P = NR.

After 3 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the energy‐dense, HF and low‐fibre dietary pattern, BMI will increase by 0.03 z‐score in boys.

+

NA; exposure included energy intake

Adjusted for age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Appannah 2015

14 years;

regression and OR higher vs lower dietary pattern z‐score

BMI

Overweight/obese by IOTF;^d

odds

3

Energy‐dense, HF and low‐fibre dietary pattern^c (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n girls = 649; regression result.

OR = 1.02 (95% CI 0.87 to 1.19), P = NR.

After 3 years, the ratio of odds for being overweight/obese was 1.02 greater in girls with higher dietary pattern z‐scores compared to the odds in girls with lower dietary pattern z‐scores.

+

NA; exposure included energy intake

Adjusted for age, dietary misreporting, physical activity and smoking.

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression and OR higher vs lower dietary pattern z‐score

BMI

Overweight/obese by IOTF;^d

odds

3

Energy‐dense, HF and low‐fibre dietary pattern^c(single FFQ) at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n boys = 699; regression result.

OR = 1.04 (95% CI 0.9 to 1.2), P = NR.

After 3 years, the ratio of odds for being overweight/obese is 1.04 greater in boys with higher dietary pattern z‐scores compared to the odds in boys with lower dietary pattern z‐scores.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, dietary misreporting, physical activity and smoking.

Brixval 2009

9.7 years; regression

BMI

z‐score,

3‐years change

3

Dietary fat (single 24‐hour recall at baseline)

%TE

n boys = 181; regression result.

β = ‐0.63 (95% CI ‐2.07 to 0.82), P = 0.39.

After 3 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, BMI will decrease by 0.63 z‐score in boys.

‐

Yes

Adjusted for age, physical activity level, dietary volume and puberty at baseline.

Brixval 2009

9.7 years; regression

BMI

z‐score,

3‐years change

3

Dietary fat (single 24‐hour recall at baseline)

%TE

n girls = 217; regression result.

β = 0.07 (95% CI ‐1.08 to 1.25), P = 0.72.

After 3 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, BMI will increase by 0.07 z‐score in girls.

+

Yes

Adjusted for age, physical activity level, dietary volume and puberty at baseline.

Cohen 2014

13.9 years; regression

BMI

Percentile,

%

3

Total fat intake (single FFQ at baseline, 1, 2 and 3 years)

%TE

n girls = 265; regression result.

B = ‐0.01, SE = 0.01, P = 0.16.

After 3 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, BMI will decrease by 0.01 percentile in girls.

‐

No

Adjusted for age, ethnicity, protein calories, CHO calories, physical activity, physical inactivity and SES.

Jago 2005

4.4 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²

3

Total fat intake (observed 4‐day dietary intake at baseline, 1 and 2 years and 3‐day dietary intake at 3 years)

%TE

n overall = 133; regression result.

R² = 0.65, P = NR.

"Dietary factors were not associated with BMI across the three study years."

NR

Yes

Adjusted for ethnicity, gender, baseline BMI, TV viewing, sedentary behaviour, physical activity, dietary behaviours and interaction terms for variables differing by year.

Obarzanek 1997 (cohort)

9.6 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²

3

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline, 1 and 3 years)

%TE

n overall = 632; regression result.

B = ‐0.00008, P = 0.9.

After 3 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, BMI will decrease by 0.00008 kg/m².

‐

Yes

Adjusted for gender, physical activity, treatment, visit number, other sources of energy than fat, and for interactions: fat intake‐by‐treatment, fat intake‐by‐gender, fat intake‐by‐visit number and visit number‐by‐treatment.

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

BMI

z‐score

4

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years)

NR

n overall = 152; regression result.

β = 0.087, P > 0.1; R² = 0.48, P < 0.0001.

After 4 years, increase in the total fat intake, will increase BMI by 0.087 z‐score. The model explained 48% of variance in the change of BMI z‐score.

+

Yes

Adjusted for baseline BMI‐z score, gender, mother's BMI and father's BMI.

BMI at > 5to 10 years: 4 cohort studies; 6 analyses (n = 1158) in boys and girls aged 2‐10 years

Brixval 2009

9.6 years; regression

BMI

z‐score,

6‐years change

6

Dietary fat (single 24‐hour recall at baseline)

%TE

n girls = 177; regression result.

β = 0.005, SE 0.008, P = 0.54.

After 6 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, BMI will increase by 0.005 z‐score in girls.

+

Yes

Adjusted for age, puberty status, parent's income level, self‐reported activity, inactivity and number of overweight parents.

Brixval 2009

9.6 years; regression

BMI

z‐score,

6‐years change

6

Dietary fat (single 24‐hour recall at baseline)

%TE

n boys = 147; regression result.

β = ‐0.011, SE 0.009, P = 0.2.

After 6 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, BMI will decrease by 0.011 z‐score in boys.

‐

Yes

Adjusted for age, puberty status, parent's income level, self‐reported activity, inactivity and number of overweight parents.

Skinner 2004

2 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²

6

Longitudinal dietary fat (single 24‐hour dietary recall and 2‐day food record at baseline, every 3 months during 1 year, every 6 months during 2 and 3 years, every year during 4, 5 and 6 years)

g

n overall = 70; regression result.

B = 0.01, SE 0.01, P = 0.0039, F‐test = 9; R² = 0.43, P = 0.0001, F‐test = 17.6.

After 6 years, for every 1 g increases in the fat intake, BMI will increase by 0.01 kg/m².

‐

No

Adjusted for baseline BMI, birthweight, cereal introduction age, breastfeeding duration, dietary variety score 42‐84 months, adiposity rebound, picky eater at age 6 years, sedentary activity at ages 6 and 7 years, foods liked at age 8 years, mother's BMI and father's BMI.

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

BMI

z‐score

9

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years, single 4‐day weighed dietary record at 6 and 9 years)

NR

n overall = 243; regression result.

β = 0.122, P > 0.1; R² = 0.38, P < 0.0001.

After 9 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase BMI by 0.122 z‐score.

+

Yes

Adjusted for baseline BMI‐z score, gender and parental BMI.

Morrison 2008

10.1 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²,

10‐years change

10

Total fat intake (single 3‐day dietary records at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 10 years) × baseline IR

%TE

n white girls = 241; regression result.

B = 0.029, SE 0.0028, P < 0.0001, partial R² = 27.

After 10 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, BMI will increase by 0.029 kg/m² in white girls.

+

Yes

Adjusted for age, BMI, IR and maturation stage at baseline; change in IR over 10 years' follow‐up; percentage of calories from protein, fat and CHO (mean of interviews) during 10 years' follow‐up; and interaction terms (nutrients × baseline IR).

Morrison 2008

10.1 years; regression

BMI

kg/m²,

10‐years change

10

Total fat intake (single 3‐day dietary records at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 10 years) × baseline IR

%TE

n black girls = 280; regression result.

B = 0.012, SE 0.0032, P = 0.0002, partial R² = 3.6.

After 10 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, BMI will increase by 0.012 kg/m² in black girls.

‐

Yes

Adjusted for age, BMI, IR and maturation stage at baseline; change in IR over 10 years' follow‐up; percentage of calories from protein, fat and CHO (mean of interviews) during 10 years' follow‐up; and interaction terms (nutrients × baseline IR).

BMI at > 10 years: 2 cohort studies; 2 analyses (n = 330) in boys and girls aged 2‐3 years

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

BMI

z‐score

13

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years, single 4‐day weighed dietary record at 6, 9, 11 and 13 years)

NR

n overall = 218; regression result.

β = 0.16, 0.05 < P ≤ 0.1; R² = 0.23, P < 0.0001.

After 13 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase BMI by 0.16 z‐score.

+

Yes

Adjusted for baseline BMI‐z score, gender, mother's BMI and father's BMI.

Alexy 2004

3.2 years;

mean end values per group

BMI

z‐score

17

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline and each year follow‐up)

LF (32%TE);

HF (40%TE)

n overall = 112 (LF = 55; HF = 57); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 0.36 (0.75); HF = 0.07 (0.81).

At 17 years: LF = 0.23 (0.9); HF = 0.11 (1.09).

After 17 years, on average BMI decrease 0.13 z‐score in the LF (32%TE) group while increase 0.04 z‐score in the HF (40%TE) group.

+

No

No matching reported. No adjustments for prognostic variables.

Study ID;

mean age at baseline; analysis

Outcome

Outcome units

Time point (year)

Exposure

Exposure unit

Results of association (all reported values)

Direction;^a

energy intake adjusted?

(yes/no)

Matched groups or adjusted for (or both)

Waist circumference at > 1to 2 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 310) in boys and girls aged 13 years

Setayeshgar 2017

12.5 years; regression

WC

cm

2

Total fat intake (single 24‐hour recall at baseline)

per 10 g

n overall = 310, regression result.

B = 0.31 (95% CI 0.08 to 0.58), P ≤ 0.05.

After 2 years, for every 10‐g increase in the total fat intake of children, WC will increase by 0.31 cm.

+

No

Age, gender, baseline BMI z‐score, baseline WC, moderate to vigorous physical activity, vegetables and fruit, fibre, milk, sodium and added sugar.

Waist circumference at > 2to 5 years: 1 cohort study; 4 analyses (n = 2680) in boys and girls aged 14 years

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression and OR higher vs lower dietary pattern z‐score

WC

WC ≥ 80 cm, odds

3

Energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern^b (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n boys = 697, regression result.

OR = 1 (95% CI 0.82 to 1.22).

After 3 years, the ratio of odds that WC is ≥ 80 cm is the same in boys with higher dietary pattern z‐scores compared to the odds in boys with lower dietary pattern z‐scores, during the period from 14 to 17 years of age.

0

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression and OR higher vs lower dietary pattern z‐score

WC

WC ≥ 80 cm, odds

3

Energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern^b (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n girls = 643, regression result.

OR = 1.28 (95% CI 1.00 to 1.63).

After 3 years, the ratio of odds that WC is ≥ 80 cm is 1.28 greater in girls with higher dietary pattern z‐scores compared to the odds in girls with lower dietary pattern z‐scores, during the period from 14 to 17 years of age.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression

WC

z‐score

3

Energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern^b (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n boys = 697, regression result.

β = 0.003 (95% CI ‐0.02 to 0.03).

After 3 years, for every 1 unit increase in z‐score of the energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern of boys, WC will increase by 0.003 z‐scores.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression

WC

z‐score

3

Energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern^b (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n girls = 643, regression result.

β = 0.04 (95% CI 0.01 to 0.07).

After 3 years, for every 1 unit increase in z‐score of the energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern of girls, WC will increase by 0.04 z‐scores.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Waist circumference at > 5to 10 years: 1 cohort study; 2 analyses (n = 512) in girls aged 10 years

Morrison 2008

10.1 years; regression

WC

cm,

10‐years change

10

Total fat intake (single 3‐day dietary records at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 10 years) × baseline IR

%TE

n white girls = 236.

B = 0.053, SE 0.0065, P < 0.0001.

After 10 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat in white girls, WC will increase by 0.053 cm.

+

Yes

Age, WC, IR, and maturation stage at baseline; change in IR over 10‐years follow‐up; percentage of calories from protein, fat, and CHO (mean of interviews) during 10‐years follow‐up; and interaction terms (nutrients × baseline IR).

Morrison 2008

10.1 years; regression

WC

cm,

10‐years change

10

Total fat intake (single 3‐day dietary records at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 10 years) × baseline IR

%TE

n black girls = 276.

B = 0.028, SE 0.0056, P < 0.0001.

After 10 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat in black girls, WC will increase by 0.028 cm.

+

Yes

"Age, waist circumference, IR, and maturation stage at baseline; change in IR over 10‐y follow‐up; percentage of calories from protein, fat, and CHO (mean of interviews) during 10‐y follow‐up; and interaction terms (nutrients baseline IR)."

Study ID;

mean age at baseline;

analysis

Outcome

Outcome units

Time point

(years)

Exposure

Exposure unit

Results of association (all reported values)

Direction;^a energy intake adjusted

(yes/no)

Matched groups or adjusted for (or both)

Body fat at 1 year: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 411) in boys and girls aged 7 years

Schwandt 2011^b

6.8 years;

regression

Body fat

(skinfold thickness)

%

1

Total fat intake (single 7‐day weighed dietary record at baseline and 1 year)

g

n overall = 411, regression result.

B = 0.011, SE 0.017, P < 0.05.

After 1 year, for every 1 g increase in the total fat intake of children, body fat will increase by 0.01%.

+

No

Adjusted for age, gender and physical activity.

Body fat at > 1to 2 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 625) in boys and girls aged 5 years

Ambrosini 2016

5.2 years;

regression

Body fat

(DEXA)

kg

2

Energy‐dense, high‐fat, low‐fibre dietary pattern^c (single 3‐day dietary record at baseline and 2 years)

z‐score

n overall = 625, regression result.

B = 0.28 (95% CI 0.05 to 0.53), P = 0.02.

After 2 years, for every 1 unit increase in the dietary pattern z‐score of children, body fat will increase by 0.28 kg.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for height at age 9 years, gender, misreporting status, maternal BMI, maternal education (5 categories), overweight status (by BMI) at baseline and television watching at 54 months.

Body fat at > 2to 5 years: 3 cohort studies; 6 analyses (n = 968) in boys and girls aged 2‐14 years

Cohen 2014

13.9 years;

regression

Body fat

(skinfold thickness, BIA)

%

3‐5

Total fat intake (single FFQ at baseline and once during follow‐up period)

%TE

n girls = 265, regression result.

B = ‐0.005, SE 0, P = 0.03.

After 3‐5 years, for every 1 % increase in energy intake from total fat of girls, body fat will decrease by 0.005%.

‐

No

Adjusted for age, ethnicity, protein calories, CHO calories, physical activity, physical inactivity and SES.

Ambrosini 2016

5.2 years;

regression

Body fat

(DEXA)

kg

4

Energy‐dense, high‐fat, low‐fibre dietary pattern^c (single 3‐day dietary record at baseline and 2 years)

z‐score

n overall = 483, regression result.

B = 0.15 (95 % CI ‐0.15 to 0.45), P = 0.34.

After 4 years, for every 1 unit increase in the dietary pattern z‐score of children, body fat will increase by 0.15 kg.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for height at age 9 years, gender, misreporting status, maternal BMI, maternal education (5 categories), overweight status (by BMI) at baseline and television watching at 54 months.

Skinner 2004

2 years;

regression

Body fat

(DEXA)

%

4

Longitudinal dietary fat (single 24‐hour dietary recall and 2‐day food record at baseline, every 3 months during 1 year, every 6 months during 2 and 3 years, and yearly at 4 years)

NR

n overall = 53, regression result.

B = 0.619, SE 0.261, P = 0.02, F‐test = 5.63, R² = 0.51, p = 0.0001, F‐test = 7.88.

After 4 years, for every 1 unit increase in total fat intake of children, body fat will increase by 0.61%.

+

No

Adjusted for baseline BMI, parental BMI, gender, protein, calcium and monounsaturated fat.

Skinner 2004

2 years;

regression

Body fat

(DEXA)

g

4

Longitudinal dietary fat (single 24‐hour dietary recall and 2‐day food record at baseline, every 3 months during 1 year, every 6 months during 2 and 3 years, and yearly at 4 years)

NR

n overall = 53, regression result.

B = 178.65, SE 70.06, P = 0.01, F‐test = 6.5, R² = 0.51, P = 0.0001, F‐test = 9.84.

After 4 years, for every 1 unit increase in total fat intake of children, body fat will increase by 178 g.

+

No

Adjusted for baseline BMI, parental BMI, gender, protein, calcium and monounsaturated fat.

Skinner 2004

2 years;

regression

Body fat

(DEXA)

%

4

Longitudinal dietary fat (single 24‐hour dietary recall and 2‐day food record at baseline, every 3 months during 1 year, every 6 months during 2 and 3 years, and yearly at 4 years).

Number of servings

n overall = 53, regression result.

B = 0.465, SE 0.255, P = 0.07, F‐test = 3.34.

R² = 0.47, P = 0.0001, F‐test = 6.93.

After 4 years, for every 1 unit increase in the number of fat servings, body fat will increase by 0.47%.

+

No

Adjusted for baseline BMI, parental BMI, gender, protein, calcium and monounsaturated fat.

Skinner 2004

2 years;

regression

Body fat

(DEXA)

g

4

Longitudinal dietary fat (single 24‐hour dietary recall and 2‐day food record at baseline, every 3 months during 1 year, every 6 months during 2 and 3 years, and yearly at 4 years).

Number of servings

n overall = 53, regression result.

B = 136.48, SE 69.74, P = 0.06, F‐test = 3.83, R² = 0.47, p = 0.0001, F‐test = 8.31.

After 4 years, for every 1 unit increase in the number of fat servings, body fat will increase by 136 g.

+

No

Adjusted for baseline BMI, parental BMI, gender, protein, calcium and monounsaturated fat.

Body fat at > 5to 10 years: 1 cohort study; 3 analyses (n = 156) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Skinner 2004

2 years; regression

Body fat (DEXA)

%

6

Longitudinal dietary fat (single 24‐hour dietary recall and 2‐day food record at baseline, every 3 months during 1 year, every 6 months during 2 and 3 years, every year during 4, 5 and 6 years).

g

n overall = 52, regression result.

B = 0.08, partial R² = 0.06, P = 0.001, F‐test = 4.66, R² = 0.336, P = 0.002.

After 6 years, for every 1 g increase in total fat intake of children, body fat will increase by 0.08%.

+

No

Adjusted for gender, sedentary activity, intakes of calcium and polyunsaturated fat.

Skinner 2004

2 years; regression

Body fat

(DEXA)

%

6

Longitudinal dietary fat (single 24‐hour dietary recall and 2‐day dietary record at baseline, every 3 months during 1 year, every 6 months during 2 and 3 years, every year during 4, 5 and 6 years).

g

n overall = 52, regression result.

B = 0.09, partial R² = 0.02, P = 0.001, F‐test = 4.37, R² = 0.322, P = 0.002.

After 6 years, for every 1 g increase in total fat intake, body fat will increase by 0.09%.

+

No

Adjusted for gender, sedentary activity, calcium intake, and polyunsaturated fat intake and father's BMI.

Skinner 2004

2 years; regression

Body fat

(DEXA)

kg

6

Longitudinal dietary fat (single 24‐hour dietary recall and 2‐day food record at baseline, every 3 months during 1 year, every 6 months during 2 and 3 years, every year during 4, 5 and 6 years)

g

N overall = 52, regression result.

B = 0.034, partial R² = 0.06, P = 0.01, F‐test = 4.19, R² = 0.26, P = 0.006.

After 6 years, for every 1 g increase in total fat intake of children, body fat will increase by 0.03 kg.

+

No

Adjusted for sedentary activity, calcium intake and polyunsaturated fat intake.

Study ID;

mean age at baseline;

analysis

Outcome

Outcome units

Time point

(year)

Exposure

Exposure unit

Results of association (all reported values)

Direction;^a energy intake adjusted (yes/no)

Matched groups or adjusted for (or both)

Fat mass index at > 2to 5 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 4002) in boys and girls aged 8 years

Ambrosini 2016

7.5 years; regression

Fat mass index^b

z‐score

4

Energy‐dense, high‐fat, low‐fibre dietary pattern^c (single 3‐day dietary records at baseline and 2 years)

z‐score

n overall = 4002, regression result.

β = 0.07 (95% CI 0.05 to 0.10), P ≤ 0.0001.

After 4 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the dietary pattern, the fat mass index will increase by 0.07 z‐scores.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for gender, age at dietary assessment, dietary misreporting, total physical activity at 11 years, maternal prepregnancy BMI and maternal education.

Fat mass index at > 5to 10 years: 1 cohort study; 5 analyses (n = 21,542) in boys and girls aged 8 years

Ambrosini 2016

7.5 years; regression

Fat mass index^b

z‐score

8

Energy‐dense, high‐fat, high‐sugar, low‐fibre dietary pattern^c (single 3‐day dietary record at baseline, 3 and 6 years)

z‐score

n overall = 4729, regression result.

β = 0.04 (95% CI 0.01 to 0.08), P = 0.028.

After 8 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the dietary pattern, the fat mass index will increase by 0.04 z‐scores.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, gender, dietary misreporting, physical activity and maternal social class.

Ambrosini 2016

7.5 years; regression

Fat mass index^b

z‐score

8

Non‐energy‐dense, high‐sugar, LF dietary pattern^d (single 3‐day dietary record at baseline, 3 and 6 years)

z‐score

n overall = 4729, regression result.

β = ‐0.03 (95% CI ‐0.07 to 0.02), P = 0.22.

After 8 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the dietary pattern, the fat mass index will decrease by 0.03 z‐scores.

‐

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, gender, dietary misreporting, physical activity and maternal social class.

Ambrosini 2016

7.5 years; regression

Fat mass index^b

z‐score

8

Energy‐dense, high‐fat, low‐fibre dietary pattern^c (single 3‐day dietary record at baseline, 3 and 6 years)

z‐score

n overall = 2626, regression result.

β = 0.06 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.10), P = 0.0004.

After 8 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the dietary pattern, the fat mass index will increase by 0.06 z‐scores.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for gender, age at dietary assessment, dietary misreporting, total physical activity at 11 years, maternal pre‐pregnancy BMI and maternal education.

Ambrosini 2016

7.5 years; regression

Fat mass index^b

FMI z‐score > 80th percentile; odds

8

Energy‐dense, high‐fat, high‐sugar, low‐fibre dietary pattern^c (single 3‐day dietary record at baseline, 3 and 6 years)

z‐score

n overall = 4729, regression result.

OR 1.11 (95% CI 0.97 to 1.28), P = 0.14.

After 8 years, the ratio of odds for having FMI z‐score > 80th percentile is 1.11 greater in children with higher dietary pattern z‐scores compared to the odds in children with lower dietary pattern z‐scores.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, gender, dietary misreporting, physical activity and maternal social class.

Ambrosini 2016

7.5 years; regression

Fat mass index^b

FMI z‐score > 80th percentile; odds

8

Non‐energy‐dense, high‐sugar, LF dietary pattern^d (single 3‐day dietary record at baseline, 3 and 6 years)

z‐score

n overall = 4729, regression result.

OR 0.92 (95% CI 0.78 to 1.09), P = 0.34.

After 8 years, the ratio of odds for having FMI z‐score > 80th percentile is 0.92 smaller in children with higher dietary pattern z‐scores compared to the odds in children with lower dietary pattern z‐scores.

‐

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, gender, dietary misreporting, physical activity and maternal social class.

Study ID;

mean age at baseline;

analysis

Outcome

Outcome units

Time point (year)

Exposure

Exposure unit

Results of association (all reported values)

Direction;^a energy intake adjusted

(yes/no)

Matched groups or adjusted for (or both)

Sum of 4 skinfolds (BC, TC, SC, SI) at 1 year: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = NR) in boys and girls aged 6 years

Tershakovec 1998 (cohort)

6.2 years;

mean end values per group

Sum of skinfolds (BC, TC, SS, SI)

mm

1

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline, 3 and 6 months and 1 year)

LF quintile (24%TE); HF quintile (34%TE)

n overall = NR (LF = NR, HF = NR), mean end values (95% CI).

Baseline: LF = 24.7 (95% CI 23 to 26.5); HF = 28.8 (95% CI 26.1 to 31.8).

At 1 year: (reported in the figure without exact values), LF = lower than baseline; HF = greater than baseline.

After 1 year, the sum of skinfolds will decrease in children with a low‐fat intake, and increase in children with high‐fat intake

+

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Sum of 4 skinfolds (BC, TC, SC, SI) at > 1to 2 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 126) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years;

mean end values per group

Sum of skinfolds (TC, BC, SS, SI)

mm

2

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline and 2 years)

LF < 30%TE; HF > 35%TE

n overall = 126 (LF = 14, HF = 112), mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 33.4 (6.8); HF = 32.8 (6.3).

At 2 years: LF (n = 20) = 31 (9.2); HF (n = 76) = 31.4 (6.3); P > 0.05.

After 2 years, the sum of skinfolds of children with LF intakes will decrease by 2.4 mm on average, and by 1.4 mm in children with HF intake.

+

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Sum of 4 skinfolds at > 2to 5 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n ˜ 126) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years;

mean end values per group

Sum of skinfolds (TC, BC, SS, SI)

mm

4

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years)

LF < 30%TE; HF > 35%TE

n overall = 126 (LF = 14, HF = 112), mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 33.4 (6.8); HF = 32.8 (6.3); P > 0.05.

At 4 years: LF (n = 14) = 27.2 (8); HF (n = 88) = 29.2 (8.9); P > 0.05.

After 4 years, the sum of skinfolds of children with LF intakes will decrease by 6.2 mm on average, and by 3.6 mm in children with HF intake

+

Yes

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Sum of 4 skinfolds at > 5to 10 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 126) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years;

mean end values per group

Sum of skinfolds (TC, BC, SS, SI)

mm

6

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years, single 4‐day weighed dietary record at 6 years)

LF < 30%TE; HF > 35%TE

n overall = 126 (LF=14, HF=112), mean end values (SD).

Baseline LF = 33.4 (6.8); HF = 32.8 (6.3), P > 0.05.

At 6 years: LF (n = 13) = 32.8 (13.3); HF (n = 72) = 31.8 (12.8), P > 0.05.

After 6 years, the sum of skinfolds of children with LF intakes will decrease by 0.6 mm on average, and by 1 mm in children with HF intake.

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Sum of 3 skinfolds at > 2to 5 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = NR) in boys and girls aged 10 years

Obarzanek 1997 (cohort)

9.6 years; regression

Sum of skinfolds (TC, SS, SI)

mm

3

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline, 1 and 3 years)

%TE

n overall = NR; regression result.

B = ‐0.005, P = 0.2.

After 3 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat of children, the sum of skinfolds will decrease by 0.005 mm

‐

Yes

Adjusted for gender, physical activity, treatment, visit number, other sources of energy than fat, and for interactions: fat intake‐by‐treatment, fat intake‐by‐sex, fat intake‐by‐visit number and visit number‐by‐treatment.

Sum of 2 skinfolds at > 1to 2 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 192) in girls aged 5 years

Lee 2001

5 years;

mean change per group

Sum of skinfolds (TC, SS)

mm

2

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recall at baseline)

LF ≤ 30%TE, HF > 30%TE

n girls = 192 (LF = 84; HF = 108); mean change (SD).

Baseline: NR.

LF = 0.9 (3.67), HF = 2.1 (5.2); P < 0.05.

MD ‐1.2 (95% CI ‐2.46 to 0.06).

After 2 years, the sum of skinfolds of girls with LF intake will increase on average by 1.2 mm less than girls with HF intake.

+

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Study ID;

mean age at baseline;

analysis

Outcome

Outcome units

Time point (year)

Exposure

Exposure unit

Results of association (all reported values)

Direction;^a energy intake adjusted (yes/no)

Matched groups or adjusted for (or both)

Subscapular skinfold at > 1to 2 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 155) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

Subscapular skinfold

z‐score

2

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline and 2 years)

NR

n overall = 155; regression result.

β = 0.081, P > 0.1, R² = 0.47, P < 0.001.

After 2 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase subscapular skinfold by 0.081 z‐score

+

Yes

Adjusted for subscapular z‐score at baseline, energy intake, gender, mother' subscapular and father' subscapular.

Subscapular skinfold at > 2to 5 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 152) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

Subscapular skinfold

z‐score

4

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years)

NR

n overall = 152; regression result.

β = 0.072, P > 0.1, R² = 0.38, P < 0.001.

After 4 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase subscapular skinfold by 0.072 z‐score.

+

Yes

Adjusted for subscapular z‐score at baseline, energy intake, gender, mother' subscapular and father' subscapular.

Subscapular skinfold at > 5to 10 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 243) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

Subscapular skinfold

z‐score

9

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years, single 4‐day weighed dietary record at 6 and 9 years)

NR

n overall = 243; regression result.

β = 0.069, P > 0.1, R² = 0.26, P < 0.001.

After 9 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase subscapular skinfold by 0.069 z‐score.

+

Yes

Adjusted for subscapular z‐score at baseline, energy intake, gender, mother' subscapular and father' subscapular.

Subscapular skinfold at > 10 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 218) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

Subscapular skinfold

z‐score

13

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years, single 4‐day weighed dietary record at 6, 9, 11 and 13 years)

NR

n overall = 218; regression result.

β = 0.233, P ≤ 0.01.

After 13 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase subscapular skinfold by 0.233 z‐score.

+

Yes

Adjusted for subscapular z‐score at baseline, energy intake, gender, mother' subscapular and father' subscapular.

Triceps skinfold at > 1to 2 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 155) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

Triceps skinfold

z‐score

2

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline and 2 years)

NR

n overall = 155; regression result.

β = 0.038, P > 0.1, R² = 0.27, P ≤ 0.001.

After 2 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase triceps skinfold by 0.038 z‐score.

+

Yes

Adjusted for triceps z‐score at baseline, gender, mother's triceps and father's triceps.

Triceps skinfold at > 2to 5 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 152) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

Triceps skinfold

z‐score

4

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years)

NR

n overall = 152; regression result.

Β = 0.11, P > 0.1, R² = 0.043, P > 0.01.

After 4 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase triceps skinfold by 0.11 z‐score

+

Yes

Adjusted for triceps z‐score at baseline, gender, mother's triceps and father's triceps.

Triceps skinfold at > 5to 10 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 243) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

Triceps skinfold

z‐score

9

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years, single 4‐day weighed dietary record at 6 and 9 years)

NR

n overall = 243; regression result.

β = 0.059, P > 0.1; R² = 0.12, P ≤ 0.01.

After 9 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase triceps skinfold by 0.059 z‐score

+

Yes

Adjusted for triceps z‐score at baseline, gender, mother's triceps and father's triceps.

Triceps skinfold at > 10 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 218) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years; regression

Triceps skinfold

z‐score

13

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years, single 4‐day weighed dietary record at 6, 9, 11 and 13 years)

NR

n overall = 218; regression result.

β = 0.164; 0.05 < P ≤ 0.1.

After 13 years, increase in the total fat intake will increase triceps skinfold by 0.164 z‐score

+

Yes

Adjusted for triceps z‐score at baseline, gender, mother's triceps and father's triceps.

Study ID;

mean age at baseline; analysis

Outcome

Outcome units

Time point (year)

Exposure

Exposure unit

Results of association (all reported values)

Direction;^a energy intake adjusted (yes/no)

Matched groups or adjusted for (or both)

LDL‐C at > 2to 5 years: 1 cohort study; 2 analyses (n = 1163) in boys and girls aged 14 years

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression

LDL‐C

mmol/L

3

Energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern^b (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n girls = 558, regression result.

B = 0.04 (95% CI ‐0.01 to 0.08).

After 3 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the dietary pattern, LDL‐C will increase by 0.04 mmol/L in girls.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression

LDL‐C

mmol/L

3

Energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern^b (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n boys = 605, regression result.

B = 0.001 (95% CI ‐0.04 to 0.03).

After 3 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the dietary pattern, LDL‐C will increase by 0.001 mmol/L in boys.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

HDL‐C at > 2to 5 years: 2 cohort studies; 3 analyses (n = 1393) in boys and girls aged 13 and 14 years

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression;

HDL‐C

mmol/L

3

Energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern^b (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n girls = 558, regression result.

B = 0.02 (95% CI 0.002 to 0.04).

After 3 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the dietary pattern HDL‐C will increase by 0.02 mmol/L in girls.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression;

HDL‐C

mmol/L

3

Energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern^b (single FFQ at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n boys = 605, regression result.

B = ‐0.002 (95% CI ‐0.02 to 0.01).

After 3 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the dietary pattern HDL‐C will decrease by 0.002 mmol/L in boys.

‐

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Boreham 1999

12.5 years; regression;

HDL‐C

mmol/L

3

Total fat intake (dietary history at baseline and 3 years)

%TE

n girls = 230, regression result.

β = ‐0.21, SE 0.1, P = 0.031.

After 3 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from total fat, HDL‐C will decrease by 0.21 mmol/L in girls.

‐

Yes

Adjusted for sexual maturation, SES, cholesterol intake, CHO intake, cigarette smoking

Triglycerides at > 2to 5 years: 1 cohort study; 2 analyses (n = 1163) in boys and girls aged 14 years

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression

Triglycerides

%

3

Energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern^b (multiple FFQs at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n girls = 558, regression result.

B = 1 (95% CI 0 to 3).

After 3 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the dietary pattern, triglycerides will increase by 1% in girls.

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Appannah 2015

14 years; regression

Triglycerides

%

3

Energy‐dense, high‐fat and low‐fibre dietary pattern^b (multiple FFQs at baseline and 3 years)

z‐score

n boys = 605, regression result.

B = 1 (95% CI 0 to 3).

After 3 years, for every 1 z‐score increase in the dietary pattern, triglycerides will increase by 1% in boys

+

NA; exposure includes energy intake

Adjusted for age, dietary misreporting, physical fitness, smoking and BMI z‐score.

Study ID;

mean age at baseline;

analysis

Outcome

Outcome units

Time point (year)

Exposure

Exposure unit

Results of association (all reported values)

Direction;^a

energy intake adjusted (yes/no)

Matched groups or adjusted for (or both)

SBP at > 1to 2 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 310) in boys and girls aged 13 years

Setayeshgar 2017

12.5 years;

regression

SBP

z‐score

2

Total fat intake (single 24‐hour recall at baseline)

per 10 g

n overall = 310; regression result.

β = 0.03 (95% CI 0.00004 to 0.06), P < 0.05.

After 2 years, for every 10 g increase in total fat intake, SBP will increase by 0.03 z‐score

+

No

Adjusted for baseline BMI z‐score, baseline SBP and DBP, moderate to vigorous physical activity, vegetables and fruit, fibre, milk, sodium and added sugar.

SBP at > 2to 5 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = NR) in boys and girls aged 10 years

Obarzanek 1997 (cohort)

9.6 years; regression

SBP

mmHg

3

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline, 1 and 3 years)

g

n overall = NR; regression result.

B = 0.4, P < 0.1.

After 3 years, for every 1 g increase in total fat intake, SBP will increase by 0.4 mmHg

+

Yes

Adjusted for height, weight and gender, with all sources of calories in the model.

DBP at > 1to 2 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 310) in boys and girls aged 13 years

Setayeshgar 2017

12.5 years;

regression

DBP

z‐score

2

Total fat intake (single 24‐hour recall at baseline)

per 10 g

n overall = 310.

β = 0.03 (95% CI 0.003 to 0.05), P < 0.05.

After 2 years, for every 10 g increase in total fat intake, DBP will increase by 0.03 z‐scores

+

No

Adjusted for baseline BMI z‐score, baseline SBP and DBP, moderate to vigorous physical activity, vegetables and fruit, fibre, milk, sodium and added sugar.

DBP at > 2to 5 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = NR) in boys and girls aged 10 years

Obarzanek 1997 (cohort)

9.6 years; regression

DBP

mmHg

3

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline, 1 and 3 years)

g

n overall = NR.

B = 0.43, 0.01 < P < 0.06.

After 3 years, for every 1 g increase in total fat intake, DBP will increase by 0.43 mmHg

+

Yes

Adjusted for height, weight and gender, with all sources of calories in the model.

Study ID;

mean age at baseline;

analysis

Outcome

Outcome units

Time point (year)

Exposure

Exposure unit

Results of association (all reported values)

Direction;^a

energy intake adjusted

(yes/no)

Matched groups or adjusted for (or both)

Height at 1 year: 2 cohort studies; 2 analyses (n ˜ 740) in children aged 2‐6 years

Niinikoski 1997a

2 years;

mean end values per group

Relative height^b

%

1

Total fat intake (single 4‐day dietary record at baseline, 1.5 and 2 years)

LF (27.7‐28.7 %TE);

HF (> 28.7 %TE)

n overall = 740 (LF = 35, HF = 705); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 0.30 (0.9); HF = 0.32 (0.9).

At 1 year: LF = 0.18 (1.0); HF = 0.16 (0.9); P = 0.93.

After 1 year, on average children with LF intake (27.7‐28.7 %TE) have a relative height change of 0.12% compared to 0.16% for children with HF intake (> 28.7 %TE).

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Tershakovec 1998 (cohort)

6.2 years;

mean end values per group

Height

z‐score

1

Total fat intake (multiple 24‐hour dietary recalls at baseline and 1 year)

LF quintile

(24%TE)

HF quintile (34%TE)

n overall = NR (LF = NR, HF = NR); mean end values (SD NR).

Baseline: LF = ‐0.23; HF = 0.17.

At 1 year: LF = ‐0.11; HF = 0.22.

After 1 year, on average children in LF intake (24%TE) quintile gain 0.12 z‐score in height while children in HF intake (34%TE) quintile gain 0.05 z‐score in height.

+

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Height at > 1to 2 years: 2 cohort study; 3 analysis (n = 836) in boys and girls aged 2‐4 years

Ambrosini 2016

3.6 years;

mean end values per group

Height

cm

1.5

Total fat intake (single 3‐day unweighed food record at baseline)

LF quintile (30.4%TE)

HF quintile (41.8%TE)

n boys, at baseline = 439; at 1.5 years = 387 (LF = NR, HF = NR); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 99.9 (95% CI 99.2 to 100.5); HF = 99.3 (95% CI 98.7 to 99.9).

At 1.5 years: LF = 110.7 (95% CI 109.9 to 111.5); HF = 109.9 (95% CI 109.1 to 110.7).

After 1.5 years, on average boys with LF intake (30.4%TE) quintile gain 10.8 cm in height while boys with HF intake (41.8%TE) quintile gain 10.6 cm in height.

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Ambrosini 2016

3.6 years;

mean end values per group

Height

cm

1.5

Total fat intake (single 3‐day unweighed food record at baseline)

LF quintile (30.4%TE)

HF quintile (41.8%TE)

n girls, at baseline = 351; at 1.5 years = 323) (LF = NR, HF = NR); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 99.9 (95% CI 98.0 to 99.8).

HF = 98.3 (95% CI 97.6 to 99.1).

At 1.5 years: LF = 110.0 (95% CI 108.9 to 111.1); HF = 109.3 (95% CI 108.3 to 110.3).

After 1.5 years, on average girls in LF intake (30.4%TE) quintile will gain10.1 cm in height while girls in HF intake (41.8%TE) quintile will gain 11 cm in height.

+

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Magarey 2001

2 years;

mean end values per group

Height

cm

2

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary records at baseline and 2 years)

LF < 30%TE

HF > 35%TE

n overall = 126 (LF = 14, HF = 112); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 86.1 (2.6); HF = 87.7 (3.3).

At 2 years: LF (n = 20) = 107 (5.5); HF (n = 76) = 106 (3.9); P = NS.

After 2 years, on average children with LF intake (< 30%TE) gain 20.9 cm in height, while children with HF intake > 35%TE) gain 18.3 cm in height.

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Height at > 2to 5 years: 3 cohort studies; 3 analyses (n = 973) in boys and girls aged 2‐10 years

Shea 1993

4.4 years;

mean change per group

Height

cm/year

2.1

Total fat intake (multiple FFQs at baseline)

LF ≤ 30%TE

HF > 30%TE

n overall = 215 (LF = 37, HF = 178), mean change (SD).

Baseline: LF = 6.8 (1.4); HF = 6.4 (0.8); P > 0.05.

MD 0.2 (95% CI ‐0.24 to 0.64).

After 2 years, LF intake (≤ 30%TE) will result in a 0.2 cm/year greater increase in height on average compared to HF intake (> 30%TE).

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Obarzanek 1997 (cohort)

9.6 years

regression

Height

cm

3

Total fat intake

(multiple 24‐hour recalls at baseline, 1 and 3 years)

%TE

n overall = 632; regression results.

B = ‐0.0009, P = 0.6.

After 3 years, for every 1% increase in energy intake from fat, height in children will decrease by 0.0009 cm on average.

‐

Yes

Adjusted for gender, physical activity, treatment, visit number, other sources of energy than fat, and for interactions: fat intake‐by‐treatment, fat intake‐by‐gender, fat intake‐by‐visit number and visit number‐by‐treatment.

Magarey 2001

2 years;

mean end values per group

Height

cm

4

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years)

LF < 30%TE HF > 35%TE

n overall = 126 (LF = 14, HF = 112); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 86.1 (2.6); HF = 87.7 (3.3).

At 4 years: LF (n = 14) = 114 (5.5); HF (n = 88) = 116 (4.3); P > 0.05.

After 4 years, on average children with LF intake (< 30%TE) gain 27.9 cm in height, while children with HF intake (> 35%TE) gain 28.3 cm in height.

+

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.

Height at > 5to 10 years: 1 cohort study; 1 analysis (n = 126) in boys and girls aged 2 years

Magarey 2001

2 years;

mean end values per group

Height

cm

6

Total fat intake (single 3‐day weighed dietary record at baseline, 2 and 4 years; single 4‐day weighed dietary record at 6 years)

LF < 30%TE HF > 35%TE

n overall = 126 (LF = 14, HF = 112); mean end values (SD).

Baseline: LF = 86.1 (2.6); HF = 87.7 (3.3).

At 6 years: LF (n = 13) = 131 (7.7); HF (n = 72) = 128 (5.2); P > 0.05.

At 6 years, on average children in LF intake (< 30%TE) gain 44.9 cm in height while children in HF intake (> 35%TE) gain 40.3 cm in height.

‐

No

No matching reported. No adjustment for prognostic variables.