Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries

Angela Oyo-Ita; Olabisi Oduwole; Dachi Arikpo; Emmanuel E Effa; Ekpereonne B Esu; Yusentha Balakrishna; Moriam T Chibuzor; Chioma M Oringanje; Chukwuemeka E Nwachukwu; Charles S Wiysonge; Martin M Meremikwu

doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008145.pub4

Intervenciones para mejorar la cobertura de vacunación infantil en países de ingresos bajos y medios

Appendices

Appendix 1. Search strategies

Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL 2022, Issue 3), part of Cochrane Library, Wiley (www.cochranelibrary.com/) (searched 11 July 2022)

No.	Search terms	Results
#1	MeSH descriptor: [Immunization] this term only	691
#2	MeSH descriptor: [Immunization Schedule] this term only	1157
#3	MeSH descriptor: [Immunization, Secondary] this term only	941
#4	MeSH descriptor: [Immunotherapy, Active] this term only	101
#5	MeSH descriptor: [Mass Vaccination] this term only	40
#6	MeSH descriptor: [Immunization Programs] this term only	202
#7	MeSH descriptor: [Vaccination] this term only	2811
#8	MeSH descriptor: [Vaccination Coverage] this term only	31
#9	#1 or #2 or #3 or #4 or #5 or #6 or #7 or #8	4965
#10	MeSH descriptor: [Child] explode all trees	61542
#11	MeSH descriptor: [Infant] explode all trees	34960
#12	MeSH descriptor: [Mothers] this term only	2193
#13	MeSH descriptor: [Women] this term only	248
#14	MeSH descriptor: [Pregnant Women] this term only	480
#15	#10 or #11 or #12 or #13 or #14	82076
#16	#9 and #15	2480
#17	(immunization or immunisation or vaccination) next (program* or rate* or coverage or adher*):ti	315
#18	(vaccinat* or revaccinat* or immunization or immunisation) near/3 (child* or infant* or newborn* or neonat* or baby or babies or kid or kids or toddler* or woman or women or mother or mothers):ti,ab,kw	3469
#19	#16 or #17 or #18	5177
#20	(Africa or Asia or Caribbean or "West Indies" or "South America" or "Latin America" or "Central America"):ti,ab,kw	13832
#21	(Afghanistan or Albania or Algeria or Angola or Antigua or Barbuda or Argentina or Armenia or Armenian or Aruba or Azerbaijan or Bahrain or Bangladesh or Barbados or Benin or Byelarus or Byelorussian or Belarus or Belorussian or Belorussia or Belize or Bhutan or Bolivia or Bosnia or Herzegovina or Hercegovina or Botswana or Brazil or Brasil or Bulgaria or "Burkina Faso" or "Burkina Fasso" or "Upper Volta" or Burundi or Urundi or Cambodia or "Khmer Republic" or Kampuchea or Cameroon or Cameroons or Cameron or Camerons or "Cape Verde" or "Central African Republic" or Chad or Chile or China or Colombia or Comoros or "Comoro Islands" or Comores or Mayotte or Congo or Zaire or "Costa Rica" or "Cote d'Ivoire" or "Ivory Coast" or Croatia or Cuba or Cyprus or Czechoslovakia or "Czech Republic" or Slovakia or "Slovak Republic"):ti,ab,kw	32468
#22	(Djibouti or "French Somaliland" or Dominica or "Dominican Republic" or "East Timor" or "East Timur" or "Timor Leste" or Ecuador or Egypt or "United Arab Republic" or "El Salvador" or Eritrea or Estonia or Ethiopia or Fiji or Gabon or "Gabonese Republic" or Gambia or Gaza or Georgia or Georgian or Ghana or "Gold Coast" or Greece or Grenada or Guatemala or Guinea or Guam or Guiana or Guyana or Haiti or Honduras or Hungary or India or Maldives or Indonesia or Iran or Iraq or "Isle of Man" or Jamaica or Jordan or Kazakhstan or Kazakh or Kenya or Kiribati or Korea or Kosovo or Kyrgyzstan or Kirghizia or "Kyrgyz Republic" or Kirghiz or Kirgizstan or "Lao PDR" or Laos or Latvia or Lebanon or Lesotho or Basutoland or Liberia or Libya or Lithuania):ti,ab,kw	41449
#23	(Macedonia or Madagascar or "Malagasy Republic" or Malaysia or Malaya or Malay or Sabah or Sarawak or Malawi or Nyasaland or Mali or Malta or "Marshall Islands" or Mauritania or Mauritius or "Agalega Islands" or Mexico or Micronesia or "Middle East" or Moldova or Moldovia or Moldovian or Mongolia or Montenegro or Morocco or Ifni or Mozambique or Myanmar or Myanma or Burma or Namibia or Nepal or "Netherlands Antilles" or "New Caledonia" or Nicaragua or Niger or Nigeria or "Northern Mariana Islands" or Oman or Muscat or Pakistan or Palau or Palestine or Panama or Paraguay or Peru or Philippines or Philipines or Phillipines or Phillippines or Poland or Portugal or "Puerto Rico"):ti,ab,kw	17150
#24	(Romania or Rumania or Roumania or Russia or Russian or Rwanda or Ruanda or "Saint Kitts" or "St Kitts" or Nevis or "Saint Lucia" or "St Lucia" or "Saint Vincent" or "St Vincent" or Grenadines or Samoa or "Samoan Islands" or "Navigator Island" or "Navigator Islands" or "Sao Tome" or "Saudi Arabia" or Senegal or Serbia or Montenegro or Seychelles or "Sierra Leone" or Slovenia or "Sri Lanka" or Ceylon or "Solomon Islands" or Somalia or Sudan or Suriname or Surinam or Swaziland or Syria or Tajikistan or Tadzhikistan or Tadjikistan or Tadzhik or Tanzania or Thailand or Togo or "Togolese Republic" or Tonga or Trinidad or Tobago or Tunisia or Turkey or Turkmenistan or Turkmen or Uganda or Ukraine or Uruguay or USSR or "Soviet Union" or "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" or Uzbekistan or Uzbek or Vanuatu or "New Hebrides" or Venezuela or Vietnam or "Viet Nam" or "West Bank" or Yemen or Yugoslavia or Zambia or Zimbabwe or Rhodesia):ti,ab,kw	18701
#25	(developing or less* next developed or "under developed" or underdeveloped or "middle income" or low* next income or underserved or "under served" or deprived or poor) next (countr or nation* or population* or world):ti,ab,kw	8181
#26	(developing or less* next developed or "under developed" or underdeveloped or "middle income" or low* next income) next (economy or economies):ti,ab,kw	22
#27	low* next (gdp or gnp or "gross domestic" or "gross national"):ti,ab,kw	48
#28	(low near/3 middle near/3 countr*):ti,ab,kw	1939
#29	(lmic or lmics or "third world" or "lami country" or "lami countries"):ti,ab,kw	643
#30	("transitional country" or "transitional countries"):ti,ab,kw	5
#31	(#20 or #21 or #22 or #23 or #24 or #25 or #26 or #27 or #28 or #29 or #30)	113064
#32	#19 and #31 in Trials	1826

Ovid MEDLINE(R) ALL <1946 to July 08, 2022> (searched 11 July 2022)

No.	Search terms	Results
1	Immunization/	52999
2	Immunization Schedule/	11378
3	Immunization, Secondary/	8879
4	Immunotherapy, Active/	2493
5	Mass Immunization/	3486
6	Immunization Programs/	12465
7	Vaccination/	97213
8	Vaccination Coverage/	2148
9	or/1‐8	168947
10	exp Child/	2086962
11	exp Infant/	1223438
12	Mothers/	52175
13	Women/	15147
14	Pregnant Women/	12489
15	or/10‐14	2735264
16	9 and 15	41580
17	((vaccinat* or revaccinat* or immunization or immunisation) adj3 (child* or infant? or newborn? or neonat* or baby or babies or kid? or toddler? or woman or women or mother?)).ti,ab,kf.	24505
18	((immunization or immunisation or vaccination) adj (program* or rate* or coverage or adher*)).ti.	6184
19	16 or 17 or 18	56959
20	Developing Countries.sh,kf.	91410
21	(Africa or Asia or Caribbean or West Indies or South America or Latin America or Central America).hw,kf,ti,ab,cp.	322694
22	(Afghanistan or Albania or Algeria or Angola or Antigua or Barbuda or Argentina or Armenia or Armenian or Aruba or Azerbaijan or Bahrain or Bangladesh or Barbados or Benin or Byelarus or Byelorussian or Belarus or Belorussian or Belorussia or Belize or Bhutan or Bolivia or Bosnia or Herzegovina or Hercegovina or Botswana or Brazil or Brasil or Bulgaria or Burkina Faso or Burkina Fasso or Upper Volta or Burundi or Urundi or Cambodia or Khmer Republic or Kampuchea or Cameroon or Cameroons or Cameron or Camerons or Cape Verde or Central African Republic or Chad or Chile or China or Colombia or Comoros or Comoro Islands or Comores or Mayotte or Congo or Zaire or Costa Rica or Cote d'Ivoire or Ivory Coast or Croatia or Cuba or Cyprus or Czechoslovakia or Czech Republic or Slovakia or Slovak Republic or Djibouti or French Somaliland or Dominica or Dominican Republic or East Timor or East Timur or Timor Leste or Ecuador or Egypt or United Arab Republic or El Salvador or Eritrea or Estonia or Ethiopia or Fiji or Gabon or Gabonese Republic or Gambia or Gaza or Georgia Republic or Georgian Republic or Ghana or Gold Coast or Greece or Grenada or Guatemala or Guinea or Guam or Guiana or Guyana or Haiti or Honduras or Hungary or India or Maldives or Indonesia or Iran or Iraq or Isle of Man or Jamaica or Jordan or Kazakhstan or Kazakh or Kenya or Kiribati or Korea or Kosovo or Kyrgyzstan or Kirghizia or Kyrgyz Republic or Kirghiz or Kirgizstan or Lao PDR or Laos or Latvia or Lebanon or Lesotho or Basutoland or Liberia or Libya or Lithuania or Macedonia or Madagascar or Malagasy Republic or Malaysia or Malaya or Malay or Sabah or Sarawak or Malawi or Nyasaland or Mali or Malta or Marshall Islands or Mauritania or Mauritius or Agalega Islands or Mexico or Micronesia or Middle East or Moldova or Moldovia or Moldovian or Mongolia or Montenegro or Morocco or Ifni or Mozambique or Myanmar or Myanma or Burma or Namibia or Nepal or Netherlands Antilles or New Caledonia or Nicaragua or Niger or Nigeria or Northern Mariana Islands or Oman or Muscat or Pakistan or Palau or Palestine or Panama or Paraguay or Peru or Philippines or Philipines or Phillipines or Phillippines or Poland or Portugal or Puerto Rico or Romania or Rumania or Roumania or Russia or Russian or Rwanda or Ruanda or Saint Kitts or St Kitts or Nevis or Saint Lucia or St Lucia or Saint Vincent or St Vincent or Grenadines or Samoa or Samoan Islands or Navigator Island or Navigator Islands or Sao Tome or Saudi Arabia or Senegal or Serbia or Montenegro or Seychelles or Sierra Leone or Slovenia or Sri Lanka or Ceylon or Solomon Islands or Somalia or Sudan or Suriname or Surinam or Swaziland or Syria or Tajikistan or Tadzhikistan or Tadjikistan or Tadzhik or Tanzania or Thailand or Togo or Togolese Republic or Tonga or Trinidad or Tobago or Tunisia or Turkey or Turkmenistan or Turkmen or Uganda or Ukraine or Uruguay or USSR or Soviet Union or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or Uzbekistan or Uzbek or Vanuatu or New Hebrides or Venezuela or Vietnam or Viet Nam or West Bank or Yemen or Yugoslavia or Zambia or Zimbabwe or Rhodesia).hw,kf,ti,ab,cp.	4076834
23	((developing or less* developed or under developed or underdeveloped or middle income or low* income or underserved or under served or deprived or poor) adj (countr or nation? or population? or world)).ti,ab.	122720
24	((developing or less* developed or under developed or underdeveloped or middle income or low* income) adj (economy or economies)).ti,ab.	824
25	(low* adj (gdp or gnp or gross domestic or gross national)).ti,ab.	314
26	(low adj3 middle adj3 countr*).ti,ab.	25440
27	(lmic or lmics or third world or lami countr*).ti,ab.	11008
28	transitional countr*.ti,ab.	175
29	or/20‐28	4312143
30	19 and 29	19334
31	randomized controlled trial.pt.	572472
32	controlled clinical trial.pt.	94938
33	pragmatic clinical trial.pt.	2119
34	multicenter study.pt.	323336
35	non‐randomized controlled trials as topic/	1047
36	interrupted time series analysis/	1659
37	controlled before‐after studies/	699
38	(randomis* or randomiz* or randomly allocat* or random allocat*).ti,ab.	769053
39	groups.ab.	2376408
40	(trial or impact or effect or multicenter or multi center or multicentre or multi centre).ti.	1557028
41	(intervention* or controlled or control group? or (before adj5 after) or (pre adj5 post) or pretest or pre test or posttest or post test or quasiexperiment* or quasi experiment* or evaluat* or time series or time point? or repeated measur*).ti,ab.	6256139
42	or/31‐41	8751629
43	exp Animals/	25629738
44	Humans/	20604224
45	43 not (43 and 44)	5025514
46	review.pt.	3011335
47	meta analysis.pt.	163588
48	news.pt.	213393
49	comment.pt.	970355
50	editorial.pt.	610622
51	cochrane database of systematic reviews.jn.	15911
52	comment on.cm.	970302
53	(systematic review or literature review).ti.	234449
54	or/45‐53	9539804
55	42 not 54	6604356
56	30 and 55	7661

CINAHL 1981‐present, EbscoHost (searched 11 July 2022)

No.	Search terms	Results
S54	S16 AND S34 AND S52 [Limiters ‐ Exclude MEDLINE records]	923
S53	S16 AND S34 AND S52	3.041
S52	S35 OR S36 OR S37 OR S38 OR S39 OR S40 OR S41 OR S42 OR S43 OR S44 OR S45 OR S46 OR S47 OR S48 OR S49 OR S50 OR S51	3.012.637
S51	TI (randomis* or randomiz* or randomly or trial or effect* or impact* or intervention* or multicenter or "multi center" or multicentre or "multi centre" or controlled or groups or before N5 after or pre N5 post or ((pretest or "pre test") and (posttest or "post test")) or quasiexperiment* or quasi W0 experiment* or pseudo experiment* or pseudoexperiment* or evaluat* or "time series" or time W0 point* or repeated W0 measur) OR AB (randomis or randomiz* or randomly or trial or effect* or impact* or intervention* or multicenter or "multi center" or multicentre or "multi centre" or controlled or groups or before N5 after or pre N5 post or ((pretest or "pre test") and (posttest or "post test")) or quasiexperiment* or quasi W0 experiment* or evaluat* or "time series" or time W0 point* or repeated W0 measur*)	2.839.333
S50	(MH "Health Services Research")	16.391
S49	(MH "Experimental Studies+")	400.556
S48	(MH "Time Series")	3.052
S47	(MH "Multiple Time Series")	17
S46	(MH "Interrupted Time Series Analysis")	777
S45	(MH "Repeated Measures")	54.988
S44	(MH "Multicenter Studies")	343.672
S43	(MH "Quasi‐Experimental Studies")	15.043
S42	(MH "Pretest‐Posttest Design")	49.689
S41	(MH "Pretest‐Posttest Control Group Design")	1.186
S40	(MH "Nonrandomized Trials")	768
S39	(MH "Intervention Trials")	7.745
S38	(MH "Clinical Trials")	183.365
S37	(MH "Randomized Controlled Trials")	129.893
S36	PT clinical trial	111.274
S35	PT randomized controlled trial	143.187
S34	S17 OR S18 OR S19 OR S20 OR S21 OR S22 OR S23 OR S24 OR S25 OR S26 OR S27 OR S28 OR S29 OR S30 OR S31 OR S32 OR S33	677.033
S33	TI transitional W0 countr* OR AB transitional W0 countr*	85
S32	TI ( lmic or lmics or third W0 world or lami W0 countr* ) OR AB ( lmic or lmics or third W0 world or lami W0 countr* )	3.743
S31	TI low N3 middle N3 countr* OR AB low N3 middle N3 countr*	11.241
S30	TI ( low* W0 (gdp or gnp or gross W0 domestic or gross W0 national) ) OR AB ( low* W0 (gdp or gnp or gross W0 domestic or gross W0 national) )	78
S29	TI ( (developing or less* W0 developed or under W0 developed or underdeveloped or middle W0 income or low* W0 income) W0 (economy or economies) ) OR AB ( (developing or less* W0 developed or under W0 developed or underdeveloped or middle W0 income or low* W0 income) W0 (economy or economies) )	169
S28	TI ( (developing or less* W0 developed or under W0 developed or underdeveloped or middle W0 income or low* W0 income or underserved or under W0 served or deprived or poor) W0 (countr or nation or nations or population* or world or area or areas) ) OR AB ( (developing or less* W0 developed or under W0 developed or underdeveloped or middle W0 income or low* W0 income or underserved or under W0 served or deprived or poor) W0 (countr or nation or nations or population* or world or area or areas) )	42.309
S27	MW ( Afghanistan or Bangladesh or Benin or "Burkina Faso" or Burundi or Cambodia or "Central African Republic" or Chad or Comoros or Congo or "Cote d'Ivoire" or Eritrea or Ethiopia or Gambia or Ghana or Guinea or Haiti or India or Kenya or Korea or Kyrgyz or Kyrgyzstan or Lao or Laos or Liberia or Madagascar or Malawi or Mali or Mauritania or Melanesia or Mongolia or Mozambique or Burma or Myanmar or Nepal or Niger or Nigeria or Pakistan or Rwanda or "Salomon Islands" or "Sao Tome" or Senegal or "Sierra Leone" or Somalia or Sudan or Tajikistan or Tanzania or Timor or Togo or Uganda or Uzbekistan or Vietnam or "Viet Nam" or Yemen or Zambia or Zimbabwe ) or TI ( Afghanistan or Bangladesh or Benin or "Burkina Faso" or Burundi or Cambodia or "Central African Republic" or Chad or Comoros or Congo or "Cote d'Ivoire" or Eritrea or Ethiopia or Gambia or Ghana or Guinea or Haiti or India or Kenya or Korea or Kyrgyz or Kyrgyzstan or Lao or Laos or Liberia or Madagascar or Malawi or Mali or Mauritania or Melanesia or Mongolia or Mozambique or Burma or Myanmar or Nepal or Niger or Nigeria or Pakistan or Rwanda or "Salomon Islands" or "Sao Tome" or Senegal or "Sierra Leone" or Somalia or Sudan or Tajikistan or Tanzania or Timor or Togo or Uganda or Uzbekistan or Vietnam or "Viet Nam" or Yemen or Zambia or Zimbabwe ) or AB ( Afghanistan or Bangladesh or Benin or "Burkina Faso" or Burundi or Cambodia or "Central African Republic" or Chad or Comoros or Congo or "Cote d'Ivoire" or Eritrea or Ethiopia or Gambia or Ghana or Guinea or Haiti or India or Kenya or Korea or Kyrgyz or Kyrgyzstan or Lao or Laos or Liberia or Madagascar or Malawi or Mali or Mauritania or Melanesia or Mongolia or Mozambique or Burma or Myanmar or Nepal or Niger or Nigeria or Pakistan or Rwanda or "Salomon Islands" or "Sao Tome" or Senegal or "Sierra Leone" or Somalia or Sudan or Tajikistan or Tanzania or Timor or Togo or Uganda or Uzbekistan or Vietnam or "Viet Nam" or Yemen or Zambia or Zimbabwe )	178.821
S26	MW ( Albania or Algeria or Angola or Armenia or Azerbaijan or Belarus or Bhutan or Bolivia or Bosnia or Herzegovina or "Cape Verde" or Cameroon or China or Colombia or Congo or Cuba or Djibouti or "Dominican Republic" or Ecuador or Egypt or "El Salvador" or Fiji or Gaza or Georgia or Guam or Guatemala or Guyana or Honduras or "Indian Ocean Islands" or Indonesia or Iran or Iraq or Jamaica or Jordan or Kiribati or Lesotho or Macedonia or Maldives or "Marshall Islands" or Micronesia or "Middle East" or Moldova or Morocco or Namibia or Nicaragua or Palestin* or Paraguay or Peru or Philippines or Samoa or "Sri Lanka" or Suriname or Swaziland or Syria or "Syrian Arab Republic" or Thailand or Tonga or Tunisia or Turkmenistan or Ukraine or Vanuatu or "West Bank" ) or TI ( Albania or Algeria or Angola or Armenia or Azerbaijan or Belarus or Bhutan or Bolivia or Bosnia or Herzegovina or "Cape Verde" or Cameroon or China or Colombia or Congo or Cuba or Djibouti or "Dominican Republic" or Ecuador or Egypt or "El Salvador" or Fiji or Gaza or Georgia or Guam or Guatemala or Guyana or Honduras or "Indian Ocean Islands" or Indonesia or Iran or Iraq or Jamaica or Jordan or Kiribati or Lesotho or Macedonia or Maldives or "Marshall Islands" or Micronesia or "Middle East" or Moldova or Morocco or Namibia or Nicaragua or Palestin* or Paraguay or Peru or Philippines or Samoa or "Sri Lanka" or Suriname or Swaziland or Syria or "Syrian Arab Republic" or Thailand or Tonga or Tunisia or Turkmenistan or Ukraine or Vanuatu or "West Bank" ) or AB ( Albania or Algeria or Angola or Armenia or Azerbaijan or Belarus or Bhutan or Bolivia or Bosnia or Herzegovina or "Cape Verde" or Cameroon or China or Colombia or Congo or Cuba or Djibouti or "Dominican Republic" or Ecuador or Egypt or "El Salvador" or Fiji or Gaza or Georgia or Guam or Guatemala or Guyana or Honduras or "Indian Ocean Islands" or Indonesia or Iran or Iraq or Jamaica or Jordan or Kiribati or Lesotho or Macedonia or Maldives or "Marshall Islands" or Micronesia or "Middle East" or Moldova or Morocco or Namibia or Nicaragua or Palestin* or Paraguay or Peru or Philippines or Samoa or "Sri Lanka" or Suriname or Swaziland or Syria or "Syrian Arab Republic" or Thailand or Tonga or Tunisia or Turkmenistan or Ukraine or Vanuatu or "West Bank" )	203.543
S25	MW ( "American Samoa" or Argentina or Belize or Botswana or Brazil or Brasil or Bulgaria or Chile or Comoros or "Costa Rica" or Croatia or Dominica or Guinea or Gabon or Grenada or Grenadines or Hungary or Kazakhstan or Latvia or Lebanon or Libia or libyan or Libya or Lithuania or Malaysia or Mauritius or Mayotte or Mexico or Micronesia or Montenegro or Nevis or "Northern Mariana Islands" or Oman or Palau or Panama or Poland or Romania or Russia or "Russian Federation" or Samoa or "Saint Lucia" or "St Lucia" or "Saint Kitts" or "St Kitts" or "Saint Vincent" or "St Vincent" or Serbia or Seychelles or Slovakia or "Slovak Republic" or "South Africa" or Turkey or Uruguay or Venezuela or Yugoslavia ) or TI ( "American Samoa" or Argentina or Belize or Botswana or Brazil or Bulgaria or Chile or Comoros or "Costa Rica" or Croatia or Dominica or Guinea or Gabon or Grenada or Grenadines or Hungary or Kazakhstan or Latvia or Lebanon or Libia or libyan or Libya or Lithuania or Malaysia or Mauritius or Mayotte or Mexico or Micronesia or Montenegro or Nevis or "Northern Mariana Islands" or Oman or Palau or Panama or Poland or Romania or Russia or "Russian Federation" or Samoa or "Saint Lucia" or "St Lucia" or "Saint Kitts" or "St Kitts" or "Saint Vincent" or "St Vincent" or Serbia or Seychelles or Slovakia or "Slovak Republic" or "South Africa" or Turkey or Uruguay or Venezuela or Yugoslavia ) or AB ( "American Samoa" or Argentina or Belize or Botswana or Brazil or Bulgaria or Chile or Comoros or "Costa Rica" or Croatia or Dominica or Guinea or Gabon or Grenada or Grenadines or Hungary or Kazakhstan or Latvia or Lebanon or Libia or libyan or Libya or Lithuania or Malaysia or Mauritius or Mayotte or Mexico or Micronesia or Montenegro or Nevis or "Northern Mariana Islands" or Oman or Palau or Panama or Poland or Romania or Russia or "Russian Federation" or Samoa or "Saint Lucia" or "St Lucia" or "Saint Kitts" or "St Kitts" or "Saint Vincent" or "St Vincent" or Serbia or Seychelles or Slovakia or "Slovak Republic" or "South Africa" or Turkey or Uruguay or Venezuela or Yugoslavia )	179.243
S24	TI ( Africa or Asia or "South America" or "Latin America" or "Central America" ) or AB ( Africa or Asia or "South America" or "Latin America" or "Central America" )	52.444
S23	(MH "Asia+")	328.566
S22	(MH "West Indies+")	11.084
S21	(MH "South America+")	67.917
S20	(MH "Latin America")	3.317
S19	(MH "Central America+")	4.521
S18	(MH "Africa+")	94.828
S17	(MH "Developing Countries")	19.862
S16	S13 OR S14 OR S15	19.013
S15	TI (immunization or immunisation or vaccination) W0 (program* or rate* or coverage or adher*)	2.729
S14	TI ( (vaccinat* or revaccinat* or immunization or immunisation) N3 (child* or infant or infants or newborn or neonat* or baby or babies or kid or kids or toddler* or woman or women or mother) ) OR AB ( (vaccinat or revaccinat* or immunization or immunisation) N3 (child* or infant or infants or newborn or neonat* or baby or babies or kid or kids or toddler* or woman or women or mother*) )	9.005
S13	S5 AND S12	12.716
S12	S6 OR S7 OR S8 OR S9 OR S10 OR S11	730.564
S11	(MH "Expectant Mothers")	11.469
S10	(MH "Women")	22.388
S9	(MH "Mothers")	35.111
S8	(MH "Infant, Newborn")	141.864
S7	(MH "Infant")	185.508
S6	(MH "Child")	509.979
S5	S1 or S2 or S3 or S4	47.549
S4	(MH "Immunization Programs")	6.448
S3	(MH "Immunotherapy")	12.674
S2	(MH "Immunization Schedule")	3.309
S1	(MH "Immunization") or (MH "Vaccination Coverage")	28.954

	Embase 1980 to 2014 Week 34, Ovid (searched 2 September 2014)
#	Searches	Results
1	Immunization/	75652
2	Active Immunization/	6595
3	Mass Immunization/	2421
4	Vaccination/	96045
5	Revaccination/	1059
6	(vaccinat$ or revaccinat$ or immunization or immunisation or immunotherapy).tw.	226888
7	or/1‐6	289620
8	Tetanus Prophylaxis/	1259
9	BCG Vaccination/	7072
10	Measles Vaccination/	2189
11	or/8‐10	10339
12	Tetanus Toxoid/	10548
13	Diphtheria Toxoid/	2535
14	Diphtheria Toxoid crm197/	216
15	Diphtheria Tetanus Toxoid/	427
16	BCG Vaccine/	27645
17	Diphtheria Pertussis Poliomyelitis Tetanus Haemophilus Influenzae Type B Hepatitis B Vaccine/	380
18	Diphtheria Pertussis Poliomyelitis Tetanus Vaccine/	393
19	Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus Haemophilus Influenzae Type B Hepatitis B Vaccine/	158
20	Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus Haemophilus Influenzae Type B Vaccine/	464
21	Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus Vaccine/	6524
22	Diphtheria Poliomyelitis Tetanus Vaccine/	74
23	Diphtheria Tetanus Vaccine/	675
24	Diphtheria Vaccine/	1902
25	Haemophilus Influenzae Type B Hepatitis B Vaccine/	230
26	Haemophilus Influenzae Type B Vaccine/	4269
27	Haemophilus Influenzae Vaccine/	944
28	Haemophilus Vaccine/	764
29	Pertussis Vaccine/	6378
30	Triple Vaccine/	715
31	Hepatitis a Hepatitis B Vaccine/	502
32	Hepatitis B Vaccine/	15773
33	Hepatitis Vaccine/	2126
34	Recombinant Hepatitis B Vaccine/	1776
35	Measles Mumps Rubella Vaccine/	5594
36	Measles Mumps Vaccine/	102
37	Measles Rubella Vaccine/	100
38	Measles Vaccine/	7860
39	Mumps Vaccine/	2031
40	Rubella Vaccine/	3477
41	Chickenpox Measles Mumps Rubella Vaccine/	219
42	Poliomyelitis Vaccine/	7207
43	Oral Poliomyelitis Vaccine/	4250
44	((tetanus or diphtheria) adj toxoid).tw.	5484
45	((tetanus or diphtheria? or pertussis or whooping cough or measles or mumps or rubella? or rubeola or mmr or polio$ or tuberculosis or tuberculoses or bcg or calmette$ or hepatitis b or haemophilus or triple) adj vaccine?).tw.	17760
46	or/12‐45	86597
47	Tetanus/	12351
48	Diphtheria/	9102
49	Measles/	15582
50	Mumps/	5967
51	Rubella/	9019
52	Pertussis/	10521
53	Poliomyelitis/	18525
54	Tuberculosis/	89886
55	Lung Tuberculosis/	63542
56	Mycobacterium Tuberculosis/	48597
57	Hepatitis B/	69010
58	Chronic Hepatitis/	21541
59	Haemophilus Influenzae/	18964
60	Haemophilus Influenzae Type B/	3868
61	(tetanus or diphtheria? or measles or rubella? or rubeola or mumps or epidemic parotit$ or pertussis or whooping cough or polio$ or infantile paralysis or tuberculosis or tuberculoses or hepatitis b or haemophilus influenza?).tw.	333094
62	or/47‐61	440846
63	exp Child/	2005016
64	exp Newborn/	450384
65	Child Care/	30274
66	(child$ or infant? or newborn? or neonat$ or baby or babies or kid? or toddler?).tw.	1614491
67	or/63‐66	2499583
68	7 and (Tetanus/ or tetanus.tw.)	10450
69	Tetanus Toxoid/ or Tetanus Prophylaxis/ or (tetanus toxoid or tetanus vaccin$ or tetanus prophylaxis).tw.	13141
70	or/68‐69	18159
71	exp Mother/	86127
72	Female/	5983316
73	(woman or women or mother? or female?).tw.	1819414
74	or/71‐73	6295611
75	70 and 74	5326
76	Developing Country.sh.	75918
77	(Africa or Asia or Caribbean or West Indies or South America or Latin America or Central America).hw,ti,ab,cp.	227844
78	(Afghanistan or Albania or Algeria or Angola or Antigua or Barbuda or Argentina or Armenia or Armenian or Aruba or Azerbaijan or Bahrain or Bangladesh or Barbados or Benin or Byelarus or Byelorussian or Belarus or Belorussian or Belorussia or Belize or Bhutan or Bolivia or Bosnia or Herzegovina or Hercegovina or Botswana or Brazil or Brasil or Bulgaria or Burkina Faso or Burkina Fasso or Upper Volta or Burundi or Urundi or Cambodia or Khmer Republic or Kampuchea or Cameroon or Cameroons or Cameron or Camerons or Cape Verde or Central African Republic or Chad or Chile or China or Colombia or Comoros or Comoro Islands or Comores or Mayotte or Congo or Zaire or Costa Rica or Cote d'Ivoire or Ivory Coast or Croatia or Cuba or Cyprus or Czechoslovakia or Czech Republic or Slovakia or Slovak Republic or Djibouti or French Somaliland or Dominica or Dominican Republic or East Timor or East Timur or Timor Leste or Ecuador or Egypt or United Arab Republic or El Salvador or Eritrea or Estonia or Ethiopia or Fiji or Gabon or Gabonese Republic or Gambia or Gaza or Georgia Republic or Georgian Republic or Ghana or Gold Coast or Greece or Grenada or Guatemala or Guinea or Guam or Guiana or Guyana or Haiti or Honduras or Hungary or India or Maldives or Indonesia or Iran or Iraq or Isle of Man or Jamaica or Jordan or Kazakhstan or Kazakh or Kenya or Kiribati or Korea or Kosovo or Kyrgyzstan or Kirghizia or Kyrgyz Republic or Kirghiz or Kirgizstan or Lao PDR or Laos or Latvia or Lebanon or Lesotho or Basutoland or Liberia or Libya or Lithuania or Macedonia or Madagascar or Malagasy Republic or Malaysia or Malaya or Malay or Sabah or Sarawak or Malawi or Nyasaland or Mali or Malta or Marshall Islands or Mauritania or Mauritius or Agalega Islands or Mexico or Micronesia or Middle East or Moldova or Moldovia or Moldovian or Mongolia or Montenegro or Morocco or Ifni or Mozambique or Myanmar or Myanma or Burma or Namibia or Nepal or Netherlands Antilles or New Caledonia or Nicaragua or Niger or Nigeria or Northern Mariana Islands or Oman or Muscat or Pakistan or Palau or Palestine or Panama or Paraguay or Peru or Philippines or Philipines or Phillipines or Phillippines or Poland or Portugal or Puerto Rico or Romania or Rumania or Roumania or Russia or Russian or Rwanda or Ruanda or Saint Kitts or St Kitts or Nevis or Saint Lucia or St Lucia or Saint Vincent or St Vincent or Grenadines or Samoa or Samoan Islands or Navigator Island or Navigator Islands or Sao Tome or Saudi Arabia or Senegal or Serbia or Montenegro or Seychelles or Sierra Leone or Slovenia or Sri Lanka or Ceylon or Solomon Islands or Somalia or Sudan or Suriname or Surinam or Swaziland or Syria or Tajikistan or Tadzhikistan or Tadjikistan or Tadzhik or Tanzania or Thailand or Togo or Togolese Republic or Tonga or Trinidad or Tobago or Tunisia or Turkey or Turkmenistan or Turkmen or Uganda or Ukraine or Uruguay or USSR or Soviet Union or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or Uzbekistan or Uzbek or Vanuatu or New Hebrides or Venezuela or Vietnam or Viet Nam or West Bank or Yemen or Yugoslavia or Zambia or Zimbabwe or Rhodesia).hw,ti,ab,cp.	2838905
79	((developing or less* developed or under developed or underdeveloped or middle income or low* income or underserved or under served or deprived or poor) adj (countr or nation? or population? or world)).ti,ab.	68123
80	((developing or less* developed or under developed or underdeveloped or middle income or low* income) adj (economy or economies)).ti,ab.	351
81	(low* adj (gdp or gnp or gross domestic or gross national)).ti,ab.	187
82	(low adj3 middle adj3 countr*).ti,ab.	4139
83	(lmic or lmics or third world or lami countr*).ti,ab.	3741
84	transitional countr*.ti,ab.	138
85	or/76‐84	3019888
86	Randomized Controlled Trial/	348266
87	Controlled Clinical Trial/	386406
88	Quasi Experimental Study/	2013
89	Pretest Posttest Control Group Design/	206
90	Time Series Analysis/	14239
91	Experimental Design/	10019
92	Multicenter Study/	109759
93	(randomis* or randomiz* or randomly or random allocat*).ti,ab.	727521
94	groups.ab.	1698086
95	(trial or multicentre or multicenter or multi centre or multi center).ti.	192503
96	(intervention* or controlled or control group or compare or compared or (before adj5 after) or (pre adj5 post) or pretest or pre test or posttest or post test or quasiexperiment* or quasi experiment* or evaluat* or effect or impact or time series or time point? or repeated measur*).ti,ab.	8028793
97	or/86‐96	8766538
98	(systematic review or literature review).ti.	62313
99	"cochrane database of systematic reviews".jn.	3777
100	Nonhuman/	4359920
101	or/98‐100	4424301
102	97 not 101	6927465
103	7 and 62 and 67 and 85 and 102	4433
104	11 and 67 and 85 and 102	865
105	46 and 67 and 85 and 102	4231
106	103 or 104 or 105	5462
107	limit 106 to embase	4043

Sociological Abstracts 1952 – current, ProQuest (searched 9 February 2014)

ALL(vaccination or vaccine or vaccines or immunization)

AND

ALL(child* or infant* or newborn or neonat* or baby or babies or kid or kids or toddler* or mother* or woman or women or female)

LILACS, Virtual Health Library (VHL) (searched 9 February 2014)

(immunization or inmunizacion or imunizacao or vaccination or vacunacion or vacinacao or vaccine or vaccines or vacuna or vacunas or vacina or vacinas) AND (tetanus or tetanico or diphtheria or difterico or pertussis or "whooping cough" or tosferina or "tosferina" or "tosconvulsa" or "tosseconvulsa" or coqueluche or measles or sarampion or sarampo or mumps or paperas or caxumba or rubella or rubeola or mmr or polio* or tubercul* or "mycobacterium bovis" or bcg or calmette* or hepatitis or hepatite or haemophilus) AND (child or children or infant or infants or newborn or neonat* or baby or babies or kid or kids or toddler* or nino or ninos or crianca or criancas or lactante* or lactente* or "reciennacido" or "reciennacidos" or "recemnascido" or "recemnascidos") AND (randomi* or randomly or azar or acaso or control* or intervention* or evaluat* or effect* or impact or impacts or intervencion* or intervencao* or evaluar or evaluacion or avaliacao or efecto or efectos or efeito or efeitos or impacto or impactos or "serie de tiempo" or "series de tiempo" or "serie de tempo" or "series de tempo" or "serie temporal" or "series temporal" or "serietemporales" or "series temporales" or "serietemporais" or "series temporais" or "puntos de tiempo" or "pontos de tiempo" or "puntos de tempo" or "puntos de tempo" or "puntostemporales" or "pontostemporales" or "puntotemporais" or "pontotemporais" or "medidarepetida" or "medidarepetidas" or "medidasrepetida" or "medidasrepetidas" or "medicionrepetida" or "medicionrepetidas" or "medicionesrepetida" or "medicionesrepetidas")

Global Index Medicus, WHO (www.globalindexmedicus.net/) (searched 11 July 2022)

No.	Search terms	Results
	Two independent strategies
	1.
	"childhood immunisation" OR "childhood immunization" OR "childhood vaccination" OR "child immunisation" OR "child immunization" OR "child vaccination" OR "infant immunisation" OR "infant immunization" OR "infant vaccination" [in Title, Abstract, Subject]
	AND
	randomis* OR randomiz* OR trial or impact OR effect OR evaluat* OR intervention* OR "control group" OR "control groups" OR "before and after" OR "time series" OR "repeated measures" OR "repeated measurements" [in Title, Abstract, Subject]

	2.
	"immunisation coverage" OR "immunization coverage" OR "vaccination coverage" OR "vaccine coverage" [in Title, Abstract, Subject]
	AND
	child OR children OR childhood OR infant OR infants OR newborn OR "new born" OR woman OR women OR mother OR mothers [in Title, Abstract, Subject]
	AND
	randomis* OR randomiz* OR trial or impact OR effect OR evaluat* OR intervention* OR "control group" OR "control groups" OR "before and after" OR "time series" OR "repeated measures" OR "repeated measurements" [in Title, Abstract, Subject]

International Clinical Trial Registry Platform (ICTRP), WHO (searched 11 July 2022)

International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP), Word Health Organization (WHO) (www.who.int/ictrp/en/) (searched 11 July 2022)
Five separate search strategies; 1‐4 using Advanced search, 5 using Basic search, limited to Recruitment status: All
1	(immunization coverage OR immunisation coverage OR vaccination coverage) AND (child OR children OR childhood OR infant OR infants) in the Title
2	(immunization coverage OR immunisation coverage OR vaccination coverage) AND (child OR children OR childhood OR infant OR infants) in the Condition
3	(childhood immunisation OR childhood immunization OR childhood vaccination OR child immunisation OR child immunization OR child vaccination OR infant immunisation OR infant immunization OR infant vaccination) AND (coverage) in the Title
4	(childhood immunisation OR childhood immunization OR childhood vaccination OR child immunisation OR child immunization OR child vaccination OR infant immunisation OR infant immunization OR infant vaccination) AND (coverage) in the Condition
5	(child OR children OR childhood OR infant OR infants) AND (immunization OR immunisation OR vaccination) AND (coverage)

ClinicalTrials.gov, NIH (searched 11 July 2022)

Two separate search strings ‐ Advanced search ‐ Search field: Outcome Measure ‐ Limited to: Interventional Studies (Clinical Trials)

1. "immunization coverage" OR "immunisation coverage" OR "vaccination coverage"

2. "childhood immunisation" OR "childhood immunization" OR "childhood vaccination" OR "child immunisation" OR "child immunization" OR "child vaccination" OR "infant immunisation" OR "infant immunization" OR "infant vaccination"

Figure 1

Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item for each included study.

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Figure 2

Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item presented as percentages across all included studies.

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Figure 3

Study flow diagram.

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Analysis 1.1

Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3 by 1 year of age

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Analysis 1.2

Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 2: Uptake of BCG vaccine

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Analysis 1.3

Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 3: Uptake of OPV3 vaccine

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Analysis 1.4

Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 4: Uptake of HBV3 vaccine

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Analysis 1.5

Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 5: Uptake of BCG + DTP3 + OPV vaccines

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Analysis 1.6

Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 6: Uptake of measles vaccine

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Analysis 1.7

Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 7: Uptake of at least 1 vaccine

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Analysis 1.8

Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 8: Reception of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age

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Analysis 2.1

Comparison 2: Monetary incentive, Outcome 1: Uptake of BCG vaccine

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Analysis 2.2

Comparison 2: Monetary incentive, Outcome 2: Uptake of measles/MMR vaccine

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Analysis 2.3

Comparison 2: Monetary incentive, Outcome 3: Under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccine

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Analysis 3.1

Comparison 3: Home‐based record, Outcome 1: Uptake of DTP3 vaccine

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Analysis 4.1

Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 1: Uptake of DTP3 vaccine

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Analysis 4.2

Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 2: Reception of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age

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Analysis 4.3

Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 3: Uptake of BCG vaccine

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Analysis 4.4

Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 4: Uptake of OPV3 vaccine

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Analysis 4.5

Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 5: Uptake of HBV3 vaccine

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Analysis 4.6

Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 6: Uptake of measles vaccine

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Analysis 5.1

Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3/Penta 3 by 2 years of age

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Analysis 5.2

Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 2: Uptake of DTP3 (SMS + monetary incentive intervention)

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Analysis 5.3

Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 3: Reception of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age

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Analysis 5.4

Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 4: Uptake of BCG vaccine

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Analysis 5.5

Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 5: Uptake of OPV3 vaccine

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Analysis 5.6

Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 6: Uptake of measles vaccine

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Analysis 5.7

Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 7: Uptake of yellow fever vaccine

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Analysis 6.1

Comparison 6: Wearable reminder, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3/Penta 3 vaccine by 2 years of age

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Analysis 6.2

Comparison 6: Wearable reminder, Outcome 2: Uptake of BCG vaccine

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Analysis 6.3

Comparison 6: Wearable reminder, Outcome 3: Uptake of measles vaccine

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Analysis 7.1

Comparison 7: Training of health providers ‐ IPC, Outcome 1: Uptake of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age

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Analysis 8.1

Comparison 8: Home visit, Outcome 1: Uptake of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age

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Analysis 8.2

Comparison 8: Home visit, Outcome 2: Uptake of OPV3 vaccine

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Analysis 8.3

Comparison 8: Home visit, Outcome 3: Uptake of measles vaccine

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Analysis 9.1

Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3 by 1 year of age

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Analysis 9.2

Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 2: Uptake of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age

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Analysis 9.3

Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 3: Uptake of BCG vaccine

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Analysis 9.4

Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 4: Uptake of HBV3 vaccine

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Analysis 9.5

Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 5: Uptake of OPV3 vaccine

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Analysis 9.6

Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 6: Uptake of measles vaccine

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Analysis 9.7

Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 7: Under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines

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Analysis 10.1

Comparison 10: Integration of immunisation with other health services, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3/Penta 3 by 1 year of age

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Analysis 10.2

Comparison 10: Integration of immunisation with other health services, Outcome 2: Uptake of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age

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Analysis 10.3

Comparison 10: Integration of immunisation with other health services, Outcome 3: Uptake of BCG vaccine

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Analysis 10.4

Comparison 10: Integration of immunisation with other health services, Outcome 4: Uptake of measles vaccine

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Analysis 10.5

Comparison 10: Integration of immunisation with other health services, Outcome 5: Uptake of yellow fever vaccine

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Analysis 11.1

Comparison 11: Engagement of community leaders, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3/Penta 3 vaccine by 1 year of age

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Analysis 11.2

Comparison 11: Engagement of community leaders, Outcome 2: Uptake of measles vaccine

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Summary of findings 1. Health education compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries

Outcomes	*Anticipated absolute effects^ (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Health education compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children under 5 years of age Setting: India, Pakistan, Nepal, China, Kenya Intervention: health education Comparison: routine care
Outcomes	Risk with routine care	Risk with health education	Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Proportion of children who received DTP3/Penta 3 by 1 year of age Follow‐up: 3 months to 12 months	Study population		RR 1.36 (1.15 to 1.62)	4375 (6 RCTs)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b	Health education^k may improve the proportion of children who receive DTP3 by 1 year of age.
	501 per 1000	682 per 1000 (576 to 812)	RR 1.36 (1.15 to 1.62)	4375 (6 RCTs)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (BCG) Follow‐up: 7 to 12 months	Study population		RR 0.99 (0.96 to 1.01)	1557 (2 RCTs)^c	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^d	Health education probably makes little or no difference in improving the proportion of children who receive BCG.
	940 per 1000	931 per 1000 (903 to 950)	RR 0.99 (0.96 to 1.01)	1557 (2 RCTs)^c	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (OPV3) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.08 (1.04 to 1.11)	851 (1 RCT)^e	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Health education may slightly improve the proportion of children who receive OPV3.
	910 per 1000	983 per 1000 (946 to 1000)	RR 1.08 (1.04 to 1.11)	851 (1 RCT)^e	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (HBV3) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.07 (1.03 to 1.10)	851 (1 RCT)^e	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Health education may slightly improve the proportion of children who receive HBV3.
	919 per 1000	984 per 1000 (947 to 1000)	RR 1.07 (1.03 to 1.10)	851 (1 RCT)^e	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (measles vaccine) Follow‐up: 7 to 12 months	Study population		RR 1.25 (1.06 to 1.47)	3343 (4 RCTs)^f	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Health education may improve the proportion of children who receive measles vaccine.
	665 per 1000	831 per 1000 (705 to 978)	RR 1.25 (1.06 to 1.47)	3343 (4 RCTs)^f	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received other vaccine under study (BCG + DTP3 + OPV) Follow‐up: 6 months	Study population		RR 1.02 (0.96 to 1.09)	393 (1 RCT)^g	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Health education may make little or no difference in improving the proportion of children that receive a combination of BCG, DTP3, and OPV vaccines.
	929 per 1000	947 per 1000 (891 to 1000)	RR 1.02 (0.96 to 1.09)	393 (1 RCT)^g	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Received at least one vaccine Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.58 (1.21 to 2.05)	228 (1 RCT)^h	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^j	Health education probably improves the proportion of children that receive at least 1 vaccine.
Received at least one vaccine Follow‐up: 12 months	582 per 1000	483 per 1000 (373 to 623)	RR 1.58 (1.21 to 2.05)	228 (1 RCT)^h	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^j
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines Follow‐up: 7 to 12 months	Study population		RR 1.24 (1.06 to 1.44)	2387 (3 RCTs)ⁱ	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b	Health education may make little or no difference in improving the proportion of children under the age of 5 years fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines.
	653 per 1000	810 per 1000 (693 to 941)	RR 1.24 (1.06 to 1.44)	2387 (3 RCTs)ⁱ	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention ‐ reported narratively in 2 studies	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
*The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). BCG: Bacille Calmette‐Guérin;CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; HBV: hepatitis B vaccine; OPV: oral polio vaccine; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aIncluded studies were Andersson 2009; Hu 2017; Owais 2011; Powell‐Jackson 2018; Usman 2009; Usman 2011. ^bWe downgraded by two levels due to serious study limitations and unexplained heterogeneity. ^cIncluded studies were Hu 2017 and Powell‐Jackson 2018. ^dWe downgraded by one level for study limitations. ^eIncluded study was Hu 2017. ^fIncluded studies were Andersson 2009; Hu 2017; Maldonado 2020; Powell‐Jackson 2018. ^gIncluded study was Bolam 1998. ^hIncluded study was Pandey 2007. ⁱIncluded studies were Hu 2017; Maldonado 2020; Powell‐Jackson 2018. ^jWe downgraded by one level as there was only one study. ^kHealth education was community‐based group discussions held with mothers in their community settings, which involved the use of visual aids in some instances, and facility‐based health education conducted in the clinic setting with individual mothers or groups of mothers.

Summary of findings 1. Health education compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries

Outcomes	*Anticipated absolute effects^ (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Household monetary incentives compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children under 5 years of age Setting: Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Zimbabwe Intervention: household monetary incentives Comparison: routine care
Outcomes	Risk with routine care	Risk with household monetary incentives	Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (BCG) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.00 (0.99 to 1.01)	2175 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We do not know if household monetary incentives improve the proportion of children that receive BCG vaccine because the certainty of evidence is very low.
	981 per 1000	981 per 1000 (971 to 990)	RR 1.00 (0.99 to 1.01)	2175 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (measles/MMR) ‐ household monetary incentive^f Follow‐up: 12 to 24 months	Study population		RR 1.06 (0.93 to 1.21)	2709 (2 RCTs)^c	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We do not know if household monetary incentives improve the proportion of children that receive MMR vaccine because the certainty of evidence is very low.
	869 per 1000	921 per 1000 (808 to 895)	RR 1.06 (0.93 to 1.21)	2709 (2 RCTs)^c	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (MMR) ‐ service‐level monetary incentive^g Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.06 (0.95 to 1.18)	615 (1 RCT)^d	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We do not know if service‐level monetary incentives improve the proportion of children that receive MMR vaccine because the certainty of evidence is very low.
	766 per 1000	812 per 1000 (728 to 904)	RR 1.06 (0.95 to 1.18)	615 (1 RCT)^d	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (MMR) ‐ household + service‐level monetary incentive Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.09 (0.96 to 1.14)	456 (1 RCT)^d	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We do not know if household plus service‐level monetary incentives improve the proportion of children that receive MMR vaccine because the certainty of evidence is very low.
	766 per 1000	835 per 1000 (736 to 950)	RR 1.09 (0.96 to 1.14)	456 (1 RCT)^d	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines Follow‐up: 13 to 24 months	Study population		RR 1.05 (0.92 to 1.20)	1000 (2 RCTs)^e	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We do not know if household monetary incentives improve the proportion of children that receive full vaccination because the certainty of evidence is very low.
	701 per 1000	736 per 1000 (645 to 841)	RR 1.05 (0.92 to 1.20)	1000 (2 RCTs)^e	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
*The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). BCG: Bacille Calmette‐Guérin;CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; MMR: measles, mumps, rubella; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aThe included study was Barham 2005. ^bWe downgraded by two levels for very serious study limitations. ^cThe included studies were Morris 2004 and Barham 2005. ^dThe included study is Morris 2004. ^eThe included studies were Maluccio 2004 and Robertson 2013. ^fHousehold monetary incentives ‐ vouchers worth GBP 2.53 to 3.69 given to mothers conditionally. ^gService monetary incentives ‐ logistic support to health facilities.

Outcomes	*Anticipated absolute effects^ (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Home‐based record compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children aged 1 year Setting: Pakistan and Indonesia Intervention: home‐based record Comparison: routine care
Outcomes	Risk with routine care	Risk with home‐based record	Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 ‐ HBR^f only Follow‐up: 3 to 7 months	Study population		RR 1.36 (1.06 to 1.75)	4019 (3 RCTs)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b	Home‐based record may improve the proportion of children who receive DTP3/Penta 3 by 1 year of age.
	552 per 1000	751 per 1000 (586 to 967)	RR 1.36 (1.06 to 1.75)	4019 (3 RCTs)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 ‐ HBR + health education^g Follow‐up: 3 months	Study population		RR 1.49 (1.22 to 1.82)	1502 (2 RCTs)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b	HBR in combination with health education may increase the proportion of children who receive DTP3/Penta 3 by 1 year of age.
	470 per 1000	700 per 1000 (574 to 856)	RR 1.49 (1.22 to 1.82)	1502 (2 RCTs)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 ‐ HBR + sticker^h Follow‐up: 7 months	Study population		RR 1.46 (1.02 to 2.09)	2182 (1 RCT)^d	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^e	HBR in combination with sticker may improve the proportion of children who receive DTP3/Penta 3.
	610 per 1000	890 per 1000 (622 to 1000)	RR 1.46 (1.02 to 2.09)	2182 (1 RCT)^d	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^e
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention presented narratively in 2 studies	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
*The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; HBR: home‐based record; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aIncluded studies were Usman 2009; Usman 2011; Wallace 2019. We downgraded for study limitations. ^bWe downgraded by two levels for serious study limitations and for heterogeneity. ^cIncluded studies were Usman 2009; Usman 2011. We downgraded for study limitations. ^dIncluded study was Wallace 2019. ^eWe downgraded by two levels for serious study limitations and because there was only one study. ^fHBR only ‐ redesigned immunisation card, which was larger than the normal card and had the date of the next appointment on the front and back pages. ^gHBR plus health education ‐ redesigned card described above plus facility‐based health education. ^hHBR plus sticker ‐ usual immunisation card with a bright yellow sticker.

Outcomes	*Anticipated absolute effects^ (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Digital register compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children under 5 years of age Setting: India and China Intervention: digital register Comparison: routine care
Outcomes	Risk with routine care	Risk with digital register	Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age Follow‐up: 2 to 12 months	Study population		RR 0.98 (0.89 to 1.09)	328 (2 RCTs)^a	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^b	Digital register probably makes little or no difference in improving the proportion of children who receive DPT3/Penta3 by 1 year of age.
	904 per 1000	886 per 1000 (804 to 985)	RR 0.98 (0.89 to 1.09)	328 (2 RCTs)^a	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^b
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.03 (0.88 to 1.20)	205 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Digital register may not improve the proportion of children who receive full vaccination by 2 years of age.
	346 per 1000	357 per 1000 (305 to 415)	RR 1.03 (0.88 to 1.20)	205 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (BCG) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 0.98 (0.92 to 1.04)	205 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Digital register may not improve the proportion of children who receive BCG.
	894 per 1000	876 per 1000 (823 to 930)	RR 0.98 (0.92 to 1.04)	205 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (OPV3) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.06 (0.97 to 1.17)	205 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Digital register may not improve the proportion of children who receive OPV3.
	904 per 1000	958 per 1000 (877 to 1000)	RR 1.06 (0.97 to 1.17)	205 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (measles) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.06 (0.97 to 1.17)	205 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Digital register may not improve the proportion of children who receive measles vaccine.
	904 per 1000	958 per 1000 (877 to 1000)	RR 1.06 (0.97 to 1.17)	205 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (HBV3) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 0.98 (0.89 to 1.07)	205 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Digital register may not improve the proportion of children who receive HBV3 vaccine.
	942 per 1000	923 per 1000 (839 to 1000)	RR 0.98 (0.89 to 1.07)	205 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
*The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). BCG: Bacille Calmette‐Guérin;CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; HBV: hepatitis B vaccine; OPV: oral polio vaccine; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aIncluded studies were Chen 2016; Nagar 2018. ^bWe downgraded by one level for serious study limitations. ^cIncluded study was Chen 2016. ^dWe downgraded by two levels for serious study limitations and because there was only one study.

Outcomes	*Anticipated absolute effects^ (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Phone call/SMS with/without combination with monetary incentives compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children under 5 years of age Setting: Côte d'Ivoire, Georgia, Guatemala, Kenya, Nigeria, Pakistan, Zimbabwe, India Intervention: phone call/SMS Comparison: routine care
Outcomes	Risk with routine care	Risk with phone call/SMS	Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age (phone call/SMS) Follow‐up: 3 to 12 months	Study population		RR 1.12 (1.00 to 1.25)	3869 (6 RCTs)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b	Phone call/SMS may slightly increase the proportion of children vaccinated with DTP3/Penta 3.
	700 per 1000	784 per 1000 (700 to 875)	RR 1.12 (1.00 to 1.25)	3869 (6 RCTs)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age (SMS + monetary incentive) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.01 (0.98 to 1.03)	766 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	A combination of SMS and monetary incentive may make little or no difference in improving the proportion of children that receive DTP3 vaccination.
	953 per 1000	962 per 1000 (934 to 981)	RR 1.01 (0.98 to 1.03)	766 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age (phone call/SMS only) Follow‐up: 3 to 12 months	Study population		RR 1.06 (0.99 to 1.12)	10,414 (5 RCTs)^e	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^f	Phone call/SMS may make little or no difference in improving the proportion of children that receive full vaccination.
	679 per 1000	720 per 1000 (673 to 761)	RR 1.06 (0.99 to 1.12)	10,414 (5 RCTs)^e	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^f
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age (SMS + monetary incentive) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.09 (1.02 to 1.16)	766 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	A combination of SMS and monetary incentive may slightly improve the proportion of children that receive full vaccination by 2 years of age.
	822 per 1000	896 per 1000 (839 to 954)	RR 1.09 (1.02 to 1.16)	766 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study ‐ BCG (phone call/SMS only) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 0.98 (0.82 to 1.18)	748 (1 RCT)^g	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Phone call/SMS may make no difference in improving the proportion of children that receive BCG vaccination.
	1000 per 1000	990 per 1000 (980 to 1000)	RR 0.98 (0.82 to 1.18)	748 (1 RCT)^g	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study ‐ BCG (SMS + monetary incentive) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.00 (0.84 to 1.20)	766 (1 RCT)^g	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Phone call/SMS in combination with monetary incentive may make no difference in improving the proportion of children that receive BCG.
	1000 per 1000	1000 per 1000 (840 per 1000)	RR 1.00 (0.84 to 1.20)	766 (1 RCT)^g	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study ‐ OPV3 (phone call/SMS only) Follow‐up: 6 to 12 months	Study population		RR 0.99 (0.94 to 1.05)	1069 (2 RCTs)^h	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderateⁱ	Phone call/SMS probably has no effect in increasing the proportion of children that receive OPV3 vaccination.
	919 per 1000	910 per 1000 (864 to 965)	RR 0.99 (0.94 to 1.05)	1069 (2 RCTs)^h	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderateⁱ
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study ‐ OPV3 (phone call/SMS + monetary incentive) Follow‐up: 3 months	Study population		RR 1.01 (0.99 to 1.04)	766 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Phone call/SMS in combination with monetary incentive may have little or no effect in increasing the proportion of children that receive OPV3.
	969 per 1000	979 per 1000 (960 to 1000	RR 1.01 (0.99 to 1.04)	766 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study ‐ measles/MMR (phone call/SMS + monetary incentive) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.07 (1.01 to 1.14)	766 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Phone call/SMS in combination with monetary incentive may have little or no effect in improving the proportion of children that receive measles vaccination.
	987 per 1000	1000 per 1000 (997 to 1000)	RR 1.07 (1.01 to 1.14)	766 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention ‐ reported narratively for 2 studies^k	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
*The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). BCG: Bacille Calmette‐Guérin;CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; MMR: measles, mumps, rubella; OPV: oral polio vaccine; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aIncluded studies were Bangure 2015; Dissieka 2019; Domek 2016; Ekhaguere 2019; Gibson 2017; Kazi 2018. ^bWe downgraded by two levels for study limitations and inconsistency. ^cIncluded study was Gibson 2017. We downgraded for serious study limitations. ^dWe downgraded by two levels for serious study limitations and having a single study. ^eIncluded studies were Domek 2016; Domek 2019; Gibson 2017; Kawakatsu 2020; Uddin 2016. ^fWe downgraded by two levels for serious study limitations and inconsistency. ^gIncluded study was Gibson 2017. ^hIncluded studies were Domek 2016; Gibson 2017. ⁱWe downgraded by one level for study limitations. ^jIncluded studies were Dissieka 2019; Domek 2016; Ekhaguere 2019. ^kIncluded studies wereBangure 2015; Ekhaguere 2019.

Outcomes	*Anticipated absolute effects^ (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Wearable reminders compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children under 5 years of age Setting: India and Pakistan Intervention: wearable reminders Comparison: routine care
Outcomes	Risk with routine care	Risk with wearable reminders	Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age Follow‐up: 2 to 12 months	Study population		RR 1.02 (0.97 to 1.07)	1567 (2 RCTs)^a	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^b	Wearable reminders probably have little or no effect in improving DTP3/Penta 3 uptake. The 95% confidence interval includes both benefit and harm.
	630 per 1000	642 per 1000 (611 to 674)	RR 1.02 (0.97 to 1.07)	1567 (2 RCTs)^a	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^b
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study ‐ BCG Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 0.84 (0.74 to 0.94)	1382 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Wearable reminders may not increase the proportion of children receiving BCG vaccine.
	517 per 1000	434 per 1000 (382 to 486)	RR 0.84 (0.74 to 0.94)	1382 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study ‐ measles Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.04 (0.97 to 1.12)	1440 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d	Wearable reminders may make little or no difference in improving the proportion of children vaccinated with measles vaccine.
	685 per 1000	713 per 1000 (665 to 768)	RR 1.04 (0.97 to 1.12)	1440 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^d
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention ‐ reported narratively for 1 study	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
*The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). BCG: Bacille Calmette‐Guérin;CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aIncluded studies are Nagar 2018; Siddiqi 2020. ^bWe downgraded by one level for study limitations. ^cIncluded study was Siddiqi 2020. ^dWe downgraded by two levels for study limitations and because there was a single study.

Outcomes	*Illustrative comparative risks (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Training of health providers compared with routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children under the age of 5 years Settings: Nigeria Intervention: training of health providers Comparison: routine care
	Assumed risk	Corresponding risk
	Routine care	Training of health providers
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age Follow‐up: 5 months	Study population		RR 5.65 (3.62 to 8.83)	420 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We are uncertain whether interpersonal communication improves the proportion of children that receive full vaccination.
	95 per 1000	538 per 1000 (345 to 841)	RR 5.65 (3.62 to 8.83)	420 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (BCG)	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
The basis for the assumed risk* (e.g. the median control group risk across studies) is provided in footnotes. The corresponding risk (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). BCG: Bacille Calmette‐Guérin;CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aIncluded study is Basheer 2021, a non‐randomised controlled trial. ^bWe downgraded by three levels for very serious study limitations and because this was a single study.

Outcomes	*Anticipated absolute effects^ (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Home visit compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children under 5 years of age Setting: Ghana Intervention: home visit Comparison: routine care
Outcomes	Risk with routine care	Risk with home visit	Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age Follow‐up: 6 months	Study population		RR 1.29 (1.15 to 1.45)	419 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We are uncertain whether home visits increase the proportion of children who receive full vaccination.
	667 per 1000	860 per 1000 (767 to 967)	RR 1.29 (1.15 to 1.45)	419 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (OPV3) Follow‐up: 6 months	Study population		RR 1.22 (1.10 to 1.35)	419 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We are uncertain whether home visits increase the proportion of children who receive OPV3.
	731 per 1000	891 per 1000 (804 to 986)	RR 1.22 (1.10 to 1.35)	419 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (measles) Follow‐up: 6 months	Study population		RR 1.26 (1.14 to 1.39)	419 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We are uncertain if home visits increase the proportion of children who receive measles vaccine.
	726 per 1000	915 per 1000 (828 to 1000)	RR 1.26 (1.14 to 1.39)	419 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Number of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines ‐ not reported	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
*The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; OPV: oral polio vaccine; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aIncluded study is Brugha 1996. ^bWe downgraded by three levels for very serious study limitations and because this was a single study.

Outcomes	*Anticipated absolute effects^ (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Regular immunisation outreach compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children under 5 years of age Setting: India Intervention: regular immunisation outreach Comparison: routine care
Outcomes	Risk with routine care	Risk with regular immunisation outreach	Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Proportion of children who received DTP3/Penta 3 by 1 year of age Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.32 (1.11 to 1.56)	541 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We are uncertain whether regular immunisation outreach improves the proportion of children who receive DPT3.
	605 per 1000	799 per 1000 (671 to 944)	RR 1.32 (1.11 to 1.56)	541 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 25 years of age Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.33 (1.00 to 1.76)	309 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We are uncertain whether regular immunisation outreach improves the proportion of children who receive all vaccines.
	516 per 1000	686 per 1000 (516 to 908)	RR 1.33 (1.00 to 1.76)	309 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (BCG) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.06 (0.99 to 1.13)	647 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We are uncertain whether regular immunisation outreach increases the proportion of children who receive BCG vaccine. The 95% confidence interval includes both benefit and harm.
	896 per 1000	949 per 1000 (887 to 1000)	RR 1.06 (0.99 to 1.13)	647 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (HBV3) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.36 (1.13 to 1.64)	541 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We are uncertain whether regular immunisation outreach increases the proportion of children who receive HBV3 vaccine.
	588 per 1000	800 per 1000 (665 to 965)	RR 1.36 (1.13 to 1.64)	541 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (OPV3) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.38 (1.16 to 1.65)	541 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We are uncertain whether regular immunisation outreach increases the proportion of children who receive OPV3 vaccine.
	580 per 1000	801 per 1000 (673 to 957)	RR 1.38 (1.16 to 1.65)	541 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children who received measles vaccine Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.26 (0.91 to 1.74)	647 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b	We are uncertain whether regular immunisation outreach increases the proportion of children who receive measles vaccine. The 95% confidence interval includes both benefit and harm.
	299 per 1000	376 per 1000 (272 to 519)	RR 1.26 (0.91 to 1.74)	647 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low^b
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines (outreach only) Follow‐up: 18 months	Study population		RR 3.09 (2.11 to 4.53)	1239 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^d	Regular immunisation outreach probably increases the proportion of children who receive measles vaccine.
	58 per 1000	180 per 1000 (123 to 263)	RR 3.09 (2.11 to 4.53)	1239 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^d
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines (outreach + health education) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.28 (1.23 to 1.33)	49444 (1 RCT)^e	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^f	Regular immunisation outreach in combination with health education probably increases the proportion of children who receive full vaccination by the age of 5 years.
	250 per 1000	320 per 1000 (308 to 333)	RR 1.28 (1.23 to 1.33)	49444 (1 RCT)^e	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^f
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines (outreach + non‐monetary incentive) Follow‐up: 18 months	Study population		RR 6.66 (4.78 to 9.28)	1242 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^d	Regular immunisation outreach with incentives probably increases the proportion of children who receive measles vaccine.
	58 per 1000	387 per 1000 (278 to 540)	RR 6.66 (4.78 to 9.28)	1242 (1 RCT)^c	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^d
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention ‐ reported narratively in one study^c	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
*The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). BCG: Bacille Calmette‐Guérin;CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; HBV: hepatitis B vaccine; OPV: oral polio vaccine; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aIncluded study was Sengupta 2017. ^bWe downgraded by three levels for very serious risk of bias due to study limitations (the included study was a quasi‐RCT) and for serious indirectness because there was only one study. ^cIncluded study was Banerjee 2010. ^dWe downgraded by one level for serious indirectness because there was a single study. ^eIncluded study was Habib 2017. ^fWe downgraded by one level for serious risk of bias due to study limitations.

Outcomes	*Anticipated absolute effects^ (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Integration of immunisation with other health services compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children under 5 years of age Setting: Ghana Intervention: integration of immunisation with other health services Comparison: routine care
Outcomes	Risk with routine care	Risk with integration of immunisation with other health services	Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Proportion of children who received DTP3/Penta 3 by 1 year of age Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.27 (1.17 to 1.38)	2192 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b	Integration of immunisation with other health services may increase the proportion of children who receive DPT3/Penta3 by 1 year of age. However, the 95% CI includes both benefits and harms.
	602 per 1000	764 per 1000 (704 to 831)	RR 1.27 (1.17 to 1.38)	2192 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.29 (1.16 to 1.44)	1700 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b	Integration of immunisation with other health services may increase the proportion of children who receive full vaccination by 2 years of age.
	538 per 1000	694 per 1000 (624 to 774)	RR 1.29 (1.16 to 1.44)	1700 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (BCG) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 0.97 (0.93 to 1.01)	2089 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b	Integration of immunisation with other health services may have little or no effect in increasing the proportion of children who receive BCG.
	916 per 1000	888 per 1000 (852 to 925)	RR 0.97 (0.93 to 1.01)	2089 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (yellow fever) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.13 (1.04 to 1.22)	1383 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b	Integration of immunisation with other health services may increase the proportion of children who receive yellow fever vaccine by 1 year of age.
	732 per 1000	827 per 1000 (659 to 1000)	RR 1.13 (1.04 to 1.22)	1383 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (measles) Follow‐up: 12 months	Study population		RR 1.13 (1.04 to 1.22)	1370 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b	Integration of immunisation with other health services may increase the proportion of children who receive measles vaccine.
	739 per 1000	835 per 1000 (739 to 902)	RR 1.13 (1.04 to 1.22)	1370 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low^b
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
*The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). BCG: Bacille Calmette‐Guérin;CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aIncluded study is Dicko 2011. ^bWe downgraded by two levels for serious study limitations and because there was only one study.

Outcomes	*Anticipated absolute effects^ (95% CI)**		Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Engagement of community leaders compared to routine care for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries
Patient or population: children under 5 years of age Setting: Nigeria Intervention: engagement of community leaders Comparison: routine care
Outcomes	Risk with routine care	Risk with engagement of community leaders	Relative effect (95% CI)	Number of participants (studies)	Certainty of the evidence (GRADE)	Comments
Proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age Follow‐up: 18 months	Study population		RR 1.37 (1.11 to 1.69)	2020 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^b	Engagement of community leaders probably improves the proportion of children who receive Penta 3 vaccine.
	240 per 1000	329 per 1000 (266 to 405)	RR 1.37 (1.11 to 1.69)	2020 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^b
Proportion of children who received all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Proportion of children who received the vaccine under study (measles) Follow‐up: 18 months	Study population		RR 1.96 (1.61 to 2.39)	1227 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^b	Engagement of community leaders probably increases the proportion of children who receive measles vaccine.
	240 per 1000	470 per 1000 (386 to 573)	RR 1.96 (1.61 to 2.39)	1227 (1 RCT)^a	⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate^b
Proportion of children under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines	‐		‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Occurrence of vaccine‐preventable diseases	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Cost of the intervention	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
Adverse events	‐	‐	‐	‐	‐	None of the included studies reported this outcome.
*The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). CI: confidence interval; DTP: diphtheria‐tetanus‐pertussis; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
^aIncluded study was Oyo‐Ita 2021. ^bWe downgraded by one level because there was only one study.

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Target	Interventions	Purpose of the interventions
Recipients	Communication interventions to inform and educate targeting individuals, groups, communities or providers, or a combination of these through face‐to‐face interaction, use of mass media, printed material, etc.	To improve understanding of vaccination; its relevance; benefits and risks of vaccination; where, when, and how to receive vaccine services; and who should receive vaccine services (Willis 2013)
	Communication interventions to recall or remind using face‐to‐face interaction, telephone, mail, etc.	To remind those who are overdue for vaccination in order to reduce the dropout rate (Willis 2013)
	Communication interventions to teach skills, e.g. parenting skills	To provide people with the ability to operationalise knowledge through the adoption of practical skills (Willis 2013)
	Communication interventions to provide support	To provide assistance or advice for consumers (Willis 2013)
	Interventions to facilitate decision‐making, e.g. decision aids on vaccination for parents	To assist carers in participating in decision‐making (Dubé 2013)
	Interventions to enable communication through traditional media, internet, etc.	To make communication possible (Dubé 2013)
	Interventions, including communication, to enhance community ownership, e.g. community dialogues involving traditional and religious rulers	To increase demand for vaccination To ensure sustainability To build trust in vaccination and vaccination services To drive demand for vaccination
	Incentives	To reward service uptake; to cover out‐of‐pocket costs
Providers	Training	To improve knowledge about vaccination, to improve skills, to improve attitudes to clients, to reduce missed opportunities for vaccination
	Audit and feedback	To ensure quality and client satisfaction with services
	Supportive supervision	To ensure quality and maintain standards, to reduce missed opportunities for vaccination
	Incentives	To boost morale and enhance performance
Health system	Infrastructural development, e.g. provision of health facilities, provision of road to improve access to health facilities	To ensure access to services
	Logistic support	To improve service quality and so improve utilisation to ensure availability of services
	Service delivery, e.g. outreach; home visits; integration of vaccination with other services; guidelines/protocol for vaccination; increased resources	Outreach to improve access to services Home visits to remind parents about vaccination and identify unimmunised children for immunisation Integration to encourage vaccine uptake Guidelines and protocols to ensure quality of services Improved resources to ensure availability of services
Policy‐makers	Advocacy for: development of supporting policies, increased funding of health services	To promote the development of policies to support vaccine uptake To increase funding to the health sector

Outcome or subgroup title	No. of studies	No. of participants	Statistical method	Effect size
1.1 Reception of DTP3 by 1 year of age Show forest plot	6	4375	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.36 [1.15, 1.62]

1.1.1 Facility‐based health education	3	2355	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.21 [1.01, 1.46]
1.1.2 Community‐based health education	3	2020	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.55 [1.27, 1.88]
1.2 Uptake of BCG vaccine Show forest plot	2	1557	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	0.99 [0.96, 1.01]

1.3 Uptake of OPV3 vaccine Show forest plot	1	851	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.08 [1.04, 1.11]

1.4 Uptake of HBV3 vaccine Show forest plot	1	851	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.07 [1.03, 1.10]

1.5 Uptake of BCG + DTP3 + OPV vaccines Show forest plot	1		Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	Totals not selected

1.6 Uptake of measles vaccine Show forest plot	4	3343	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.25 [1.06, 1.47]

1.6.1 Facility‐based education	1	851	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.04 [1.02, 1.07]
1.6.2 Community‐based education	3	2492	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.38 [1.12, 1.70]
1.7 Uptake of at least 1 vaccine Show forest plot	1	228	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.58 [1.21, 2.05]

1.8 Reception of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age Show forest plot	3	2387	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.24 [1.06, 1.44]

Outcome or subgroup title	No. of studies	No. of participants	Statistical method	Effect size
6.1 Reception of DTP3/Penta 3 vaccine by 2 years of age Show forest plot	2	1567	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.02 [0.97, 1.07]

6.2 Uptake of BCG vaccine Show forest plot	1	1382	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	0.84 [0.74, 0.94]

6.3 Uptake of measles vaccine Show forest plot	1	1440	Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI)	1.04 [0.97, 1.12]

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Appendices

Appendix 1. Search strategies

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