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'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
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Figure 1

'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.

'Risk of bias' summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
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Figure 2

'Risk of bias' summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.

Comparison 1 Antibiotics use, Outcome 1 Antibiotics prescribed in ED.
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Analysis 1.1

Comparison 1 Antibiotics use, Outcome 1 Antibiotics prescribed in ED.

Comparison 1 Antibiotics use, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis per risk of bias.
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Analysis 1.2

Comparison 1 Antibiotics use, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis per risk of bias.

Comparison 2 ED length of visit, Outcome 1 Mean ED length of visit in minutes.
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Analysis 2.1

Comparison 2 ED length of visit, Outcome 1 Mean ED length of visit in minutes.

Comparison 2 ED length of visit, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis per risk of bias.
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Analysis 2.2

Comparison 2 ED length of visit, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis per risk of bias.

Comparison 3 Laboratory investigations, Outcome 1 Blood investigations (cell count and/or cultures).
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Analysis 3.1

Comparison 3 Laboratory investigations, Outcome 1 Blood investigations (cell count and/or cultures).

Comparison 3 Laboratory investigations, Outcome 2 Urine testing.
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Analysis 3.2

Comparison 3 Laboratory investigations, Outcome 2 Urine testing.

Comparison 3 Laboratory investigations, Outcome 3 Blood investigation: sensitivity analysis per risk of bias.
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Analysis 3.3

Comparison 3 Laboratory investigations, Outcome 3 Blood investigation: sensitivity analysis per risk of bias.

Comparison 3 Laboratory investigations, Outcome 4 Urine testing: sensitivity analysis per risk of bias.
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Analysis 3.4

Comparison 3 Laboratory investigations, Outcome 4 Urine testing: sensitivity analysis per risk of bias.

Comparison 4 Chest radiography, Outcome 1 Chest radiography.
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Analysis 4.1

Comparison 4 Chest radiography, Outcome 1 Chest radiography.

Comparison 4 Chest radiography, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis per risk of bias.
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Analysis 4.2

Comparison 4 Chest radiography, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis per risk of bias.

Comparison 5 Visits to physician or ED post ED discharge, Outcome 1 Post ED discharge visit to MD.
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Analysis 5.1

Comparison 5 Visits to physician or ED post ED discharge, Outcome 1 Post ED discharge visit to MD.

Comparison 1. Antibiotics use

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 Antibiotics prescribed in ED Show forest plot

4

1590

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI)

0.89 [0.71, 1.12]

2 Sensitivity analysis per risk of bias Show forest plot

3

890

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI)

0.86 [0.61, 1.22]

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Comparison 1. Antibiotics use
Comparison 2. ED length of visit

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 Mean ED length of visit in minutes Show forest plot

3

1290

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

‐10.61 [‐22.47, 1.25]

2 Sensitivity analysis per risk of bias Show forest plot

2

590

Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI)

‐19.47 [‐51.38, 12.44]

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Comparison 2. ED length of visit
Comparison 3. Laboratory investigations

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 Blood investigations (cell count and/or cultures) Show forest plot

4

1590

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI)

0.79 [0.62, 1.00]

2 Urine testing Show forest plot

4

1588

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI)

0.97 [0.79, 1.19]

3 Blood investigation: sensitivity analysis per risk of bias Show forest plot

3

888

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI)

0.61 [0.42, 0.89]

4 Urine testing: sensitivity analysis per risk of bias Show forest plot

3

890

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI)

0.93 [0.70, 1.25]

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Comparison 3. Laboratory investigations
Comparison 4. Chest radiography

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 Chest radiography Show forest plot

4

1590

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI)

0.77 [0.65, 0.91]

2 Sensitivity analysis per risk of bias Show forest plot

3

890

Odds Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI)

0.59 [0.43, 0.81]

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Comparison 4. Chest radiography
Comparison 5. Visits to physician or ED post ED discharge

Outcome or subgroup title

No. of studies

No. of participants

Statistical method

Effect size

1 Post ED discharge visit to MD Show forest plot

2

899

Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI)

1.00 [0.77, 1.29]

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Comparison 5. Visits to physician or ED post ED discharge