Study flow diagram.

Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.

Forest plot of parent training versus control: meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report

Funnel plot of parent training versus control: meta‐analysis of child conduct problems, parent‐report

Forest plot of parent training versus control: meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report

Forest plot of parent training versus control: meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 1 Child conduct problems (CBCL total problems ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 2 Child conduct problems (CBCL total problems ‐ father report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 3 Child conduct problems (CBCL externalising subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 4 Child conduct problems (CBCL social problems subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 5 Child conduct problems (CBCL total problems ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 6 Child conduct problems (CBCL aggression subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 7 Child conduct problems (CBCL aggression subscale ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 8 Child conduct problems (CBCL aggression subscale ‐ father report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 9 Child conduct problems (CBCL delinquent subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 10 Child Conduct problems (CBCL total problems ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 11 Child conduct problems (CBCL externalising subscale ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 12 Child conduct problems (CBCL social problems subscale ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 13 Child conduct problems (CBCL aggression subscale ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 14 Child conduct problems (CBCL externalising subscale ‐ independent observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 15 Child conduct problems (ECBI problem subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 16 Child conduct problems (ECBI intensity subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 17 Child conduct problems (ECBI problem subscale ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 18 Child conduct problems (ECBI problem subscale ‐ father report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 19 Child conduct problems (ECBI intensity subscale ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 20 Child conduct problems (ECBI intensity subscale ‐ father report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 21 Child conduct problems (SDQ total deviance ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 22 Child conduct problems (SDQ conduct problems subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 23 Child conduct problems (Social Competence Scale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 24 Child conduct problems (PDR total score ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 25 Child conduct problems (PDR negative subscale ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 26 Child conduct problems (PDR low rate events ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 27 Child conduct problems (PDR time out ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 28 Child conduct problems (PDR positive behaviour ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 29 Child conduct problems (PDR no. negative in 24 hrs ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 30 Child conduct problems (PDR no. positive in 24 hrs ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 31 Child conduct problems (PBQ ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 32 Child conduct problems (PSI child domain ‐ mother report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 33 Child conduct problems (PSI child domain ‐ father report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 34 Child conduct problems (HSQ, no. of settings ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 35 Child conduct problems (HSQ, mean severity ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 36 Child conduct problems (Parent Defined Problems Questionnaire ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 37 Child conduct problems (SSQ no. of settings ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 38 Child conduct problems (SSQ mean severity ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 39 Child conduct problems (SSRS behaviour subscale ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 40 Child conduct problems (PACS conduct problems ‐ clinical interview).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 41 Child conduct problems (DPICS observed child negative behaviour ‐ independent observation of child interacting with parent at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 42 Child conduct problems (DPICS child total deviance with parent ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 43 Child conduct problems (DPICS observed child total deviance with mother ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 44 Child conduct problems (DPICS child total deviance with father ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 45 Child conduct problems (DPICS child deviance and non‐compliance with mother ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 46 Child conduct problems (DPICS child deviance and non compliance with father ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 47 Child conduct problems (DPICS total non‐compliance with parent ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 48 Child conduct problems (DPICS child non‐compliance ratio ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 49 Child conduct problems (DPICS child negative valence with mother ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 50 Child conduct problems (DPICS child negative valence with father ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 51 Child conduct problems (DPICS child positive affect with mother ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 52 Child conduct problems (DPICS child positive affect with father ‐ observation at home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 53 Child conduct problems (C‐II Child observation overall poor conduct with mother ‐ home observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 54 Child conduct problems (C‐II Child observation per cent time inappropriate with mother ‐ home observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 55 Child conduct problems (C‐II Child observation overall poor conduct with father ‐ home observation.

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 56 Child conduct problems (C‐II Child observation percent time inappropriate with father ‐ home observation.

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 57 Child conduct problems (Conflict with peers ‐ clinic observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 58 Child conduct problems (Ratio of positive to negative interactions with peers ‐ clinic observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 59 Child conduct problems (DPIS child inappropriate with peers ‐ clinic observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 60 Child conduct problems (DPIS child positive with peers ‐ clinic observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 61 Child conduct problems (MOOSES child negative with peers and teacher in class ‐ classroom observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 62 Child conduct problems (SHP child antisocial in classroom ‐ classroom observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 63 Child conduct problems (SHP social contact in classroom ‐ classroom observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 64 Child conduct problems (TASB child aggressive subscale ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 65 Child conduct problems (TASB prosocial subscale ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 66 Child conduct problems (PCSC child poor conduct ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 67 Child conduct problems (PCSC child social competence scale ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 68 Child conduct problems (DSM diagnosis of Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) ‐ clinical interview).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 69 Child conduct problems (DSM diagnosis of Conduct Disorder ‐ clinical interview).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 70 Child conduct problems (ICD‐10 diagnosis of ODD ‐ clinical interview).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 71 Child conduct problems (ECBI above 90th percentile ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 72 CHild conduct problems (ECBI above 142 ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 73 Child conduct problems (CBCL above 60, clinical score ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 74 CHild conduct problems (PDR above 30% reduction ‐ parent report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 75 Child conduct problems (DPICS below 30% reduction in negative behaviour ‐ observation in home).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 76 Child conduct problems (TASB below 20% reduction in behaviour ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 77 Child conduct problems (MOOSES ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 78 Child conduct problems (Mother‐child free play ‐ clinic observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 79 Child conduct problems (Mother‐child task ‐ clinic observation).

Comparison 1 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child conduct problems), Outcome 80 Child conduct problems (Examiner rating ‐ clinic observation).

Comparison 2 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parental mental health), Outcome 1 Parental mental health (Parenting Stress Index (PSI) total score ‐ parent report).

Comparison 2 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parental mental health), Outcome 2 Parental mental health (PSI total score ‐ mother report).

Comparison 2 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parental mental health), Outcome 3 Parental mental health (PSI ‐ father report).

Comparison 2 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parental mental health), Outcome 4 Parental mental health (Beck Depression Inventory ‐ parent report).

Comparison 2 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parental mental health), Outcome 5 Parental mental health (Depression‐Anxiety‐Stress Adjustment scale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 2 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parental mental health), Outcome 6 Parental mental health (Work Stress scale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 1 Parenting practices (Parenting Practices Scale ‐ mother report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 2 Parenting practices (Parenting Competence total score ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 3 Parenting practices (Parenting competency efficacy subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 4 Parenting practices (Parenting competency satisfaction subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 5 Parenting practices (Parenting Scale total score ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 6 Parenting practices (Parental sense of competence scale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 7 Parenting practices (Ghent positive parental behaviour subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 8 Parenting practices (Ghent rule setting subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 9 Parenting practices (Ghent disciplining subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 10 Parenting practices (Ghent harsh punishment subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 11 Parenting practices (Ghent inconsistent disciplining ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 12 Parenting practices (Ghent ignoring subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 13 Parenting practices (Ghent maternal rewarding subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 14 Parenting practices (Ghent social rewarding subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 15 Parenting practices (Parent Daily Report spanks subscale ‐ mother report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 16 Parenting practices (PDR spanks ‐ father report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 17 Parenting Practices (Parenting practices interview ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 18 Parenting practices (PPI harsh discipline subscale ‐ mother report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 19 Parenting practices (PPI harsh discipline subscale ‐ father report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 20 Parenting practices (PPI inconsistent discipline ‐ mother report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 21 Parenting practices (PPI inconsistent discipline ‐ father report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 22 Parenting practices (PPI positive/supportive parenting subscale ‐ mother report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 23 Parenting practices (PPI positive/supportive parenting ‐ father report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 24 Parenting practices (PPI harsh inappropriate ‐ mother report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 25 Parenting practices (PPI harsh inappropriate ‐ father report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 26 Parenting practices (Problem‐solving behaviour checklist ‐ parent report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 27 Parenting practices (DDI critical verbal ratio ‐ mother report).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 28 Parenting practices (DPICS positive parenting ‐ observation of parent at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 29 Parenting practices (DPICS positive parenting ‐ observation of mother at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 30 Parenting practices (DPICS positive parenting ‐ observation of father at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 31 Parenting practices (DPICS total praise ‐ observation of mother at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 32 Parenting practices (DPICS total praise ‐ observation of father at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 33 Parenting practices (DPICS positive affect ‐observation of mother at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 34 Parenting practices (DPICS positive affect ‐ observation of father at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 35 Parenting practices (DPICS critical parenting ‐ observation of parent at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 36 Parenting practices (DPICS total criticism ‐ observation of mother at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 37 Parenting practices (DPICS total criticism ‐ observation of father at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 38 Parenting practices (DPICS no opportunity commands ‐ observation of mother at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 39 Parenting practices (DPICS no opportunity commands ‐ observation of father at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 40 Parenting practices (DPICS commands and criticism ‐ observation of mother at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 41 Parenting practices (DPICS commands and criticism ‐ observation of father at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 42 Parenting practices (DPICS total commands mother ‐ observation of mother at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 43 Parenting practices (DPICS direct commands ratio ‐ observation of parent at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 44 Parenting practices (DPICS negative valence ‐ observation of mother at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 45 Parenting practices (DPICS negative valence ‐ observation of father at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 46 Parenting practices (C‐II supportive parenting ‐ observation of mother at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 47 Parenting practices (C‐II supportive parenting ‐ observation of father at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 48 Parenting practices (FAST TRACK ratio of praise to inappropriate commands ‐ observation of parent at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 49 Parenting practices (Gardner's observation system positive strategies ‐ observation of parent at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 50 Parenting practices (DPICS below 30% reduction in parenting criticism ‐ observation of mother at home).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 51 Parenting practices (CII harsh critical with mother ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 52 Parenting practices (CII harsh critical with father ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 53 Parenting practices (CII family need intervention with mother ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 54 Parenting practices (CII family need intervention with father ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 55 Parenting practices (GRMB permissivity subscale ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 56 Parenting practices (GRMB control adjustment subscale ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 57 Parenting practices (GRMB maternal adjustment subscale ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 58 Parenting practices (GRMB acceptation of mother subscale ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 59 Parenting practices (GRMB mother involvement subscale ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 60 Parenting practices (GRMB minutes no control subscale ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 61 Parenting practices (GRMB mother feelings subscale ‐ home observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 62 Parenting practices (Mother‐child free play ‐ clinic observation).

Comparison 3 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parenting practices), Outcome 63 Parenting practices (Mother‐child task ‐ clinic observation).

Comparison 4 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child emotional/internalising problems), Outcome 1 Child emotional problems (CBCL anxiety subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 4 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child emotional/internalising problems), Outcome 2 Child emotional problems (CBCL internalising subscale ‐ mother report).

Comparison 4 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child emotional/internalising problems), Outcome 3 Child emotional problems (CBCL anxiety subscale ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 4 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child emotional/internalising problems), Outcome 4 Child emotional problems (CBCL internalising subscale ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 4 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child emotional/internalising problems), Outcome 5 Child emotional problems (CBCL‐DOF internalising subscale ‐ observation of child in classroom).

Comparison 4 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child emotional/internalising problems), Outcome 6 Child emotional problems (Child Loneliness Report Questionnaire ‐ child report).

Comparison 4 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child emotional/internalising problems), Outcome 7 Child emotional problems (CBCL above clinical level of internalising subscale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 4 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child emotional/internalising problems), Outcome 8 Child emotional problems (DSM diagnosis for anxiety ‐ clinical report).

Comparison 4 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child emotional/internalising problems), Outcome 9 Child emotional problems (DSM diagnosis for depression ‐ clinical report).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 1 Child cognitive abilities (SSRS academic subscale ‐ teacher report).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 2 Child cognitive abilities (Woodcock letter subscale ‐ psycho‐educational test).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 3 Child cognitive abilities (Woodcock applied problems subscale ‐ psycho‐educational test).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 4 Child cognitive abilities (Woodcock dictation subscale ‐ psycho‐educational test).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 5 Child cognitive abilities (Woodcock science subscale ‐ psycho‐educational test).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 6 Child cognitive abilities (Woodcock social studies subscale ‐ psycho‐educational test).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 7 Child cognitive abilities (Woodcock humanities subscale ‐ psycho‐educational test).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 8 Child cognitive abilities (Woodcock broad knowledge subscale ‐ psycho‐educational test).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 9 Child cognitive abilities (Woodcock academic skills subscale ‐ psycho‐educational test).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 10 Child cognitive abilities (Wally problem solving task ‐ clinic report).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 11 Child cognitive abilities (Wally object acquisitions task, no of positive solutions ‐ clinic report).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 12 Child cognitive abilities (Wally object acquisitions task proportion of positive to negative solutions ‐ clinic report).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 13 Child cognitive abilities (Wally friendship task, no. of positive solutions ‐ clinic report).

Comparison 5 Parent training versus control for individual studies (child educational/cognitive abilities), Outcome 14 Child cognitive abilities (Wally friendship task, no of positive to negative solutions ‐ clinic report).

Comparison 6 Parent training versus control for individual studies (parental social support), Outcome 1 Parental social support (Social support scale ‐ parent report).

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 1 Meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent report.

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with quasi randomisation (Child conduct problems: parent report).

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 3 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with inadequate blinding (Child conduct problems: parent report).

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 4 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without an intention to treat analysis (Child conduct problems: parent report).

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 5 Sensitivity analysis replace ITT of LOCF in Scott 2001 with ITT of mean values.

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 6 Sensitivity analysis remove studies/measures within studies with no ITT and more than 20% attrition (Child conduct problems: parent report).

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 7 Sensitvity analysis remove studies without independent replication (Child conduct problems: parent report).

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 8 Sensitivity analysis remove studies/measures within studies with high risk of bias (Child conduct problems: parent report).

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 9 Subgroup severity of child conduct problems of child conduct problems: parent report.

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 10 Subgroup trial setting of child conduct problems: parent report.

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 11 Subgroup socioeconomic status of child conduct problems: parent report.

Comparison 7 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: parent‐report, Outcome 12 Subgroup level of implementation fidelity of child conduct problems: parent report.

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 1 Meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report.

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis remove quasi‐randomised studies (Child conduct problems: independent report).

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 3 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with inadequate blinding (Child conduct problems: independent report).

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 4 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without an intention to treat analysis (Child conduct problems: independent report).

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 5 Sensitivity analysis replace ITT of LOCF in Scott 2001 with ITT of mean values.

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 6 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with no ITT and more than 20% attrition (Child conduct problems: independent report).

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 7 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without independent replication (Child conduct problems: independent report).

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 8 Sensitivity analysis remove non‐validated measures from Barkley 2000 (Negative parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 9 Sensitivity analysis remove high risk studies (Child conduct problems: independent report).

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 10 Subgroup severity of conduct problems of child conduct problems: independent report.

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 11 Subgroup trial setting of child conduct problems: independent report.

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 12 Subgroup socioeconomic status of child conduct problems: independent report.

Comparison 8 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child conduct problems: independent report, Outcome 13 Subgroup level of implementation fidelity of child conduct problems: independent report.

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 1 Meta‐analysis of Parental mental health: parent report.

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis remove quasi‐randomised studies (Parental mental health: parent report).

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 3 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with inadequate blinding (Parental mental health: parent report).

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 4 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without an Intention to treat analysis (Parental mental health: parent report).

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 5 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with over 20% attrition and no ITT (Parental mental health: parent report).

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 6 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without independent replication (Parental mental health: parent report).

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 7 Sensitivity analysis remove studies at high risk of bias (Parental mental health: parent report).

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 8 Subgroup severity of conduct problems of parental mental health: parent report.

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 9 Subgroup trial setting of parental mental health: parent report.

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 10 Subgroup socioeconomic status of parental mental health: parent report.

Comparison 9 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of parental mental health: parent‐report, Outcome 11 Subgroup level of implementation fidelity of parental mental health: parent report.

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 1 Meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent report.

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis remove quasi‐randomised studies (Positive parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 3 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with inadequate blinding (Positive parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 4 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without an intention to treat analysis (Positive parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 5 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with over 20% loss and no ITT (Positive parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 6 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without independent replication (Positive parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 7 Sensitivity analysis remove studies at high risk of bias (Positive parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 8 Subgroup severity of conduct problems of positive parenting practices: parent report.

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 9 Subgroup trial setting of positive parenting practices: parent report.

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 10 Subgroup level of socioeconomic status of positive parenting practices: parent report.

Comparison 10 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 11 Subgroup level of implementation fidelity of positive parenting practices: parent report.

Comparison 11 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 1 Meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report.

Comparison 11 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis remove quasi‐randomised studies (Positive parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 11 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 3 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with inadequate blinding (Positive parenting practices:independent report).

Comparison 11 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 4 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without an intention to treat analysis (Positive parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 11 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 5 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with over 20% attrition and no ITT (Positive parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 11 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 6 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without independent replication (Positive parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 11 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 7 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with high risk of bias (Positive parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 11 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 8 Subgroup severity of conduct problems of positive parenting practices: independent report.

Comparison 11 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 9 Subgroup trial setting of positive parenting practices: independent report.

Comparison 11 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of positive parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 10 Subgroup socioeconomic status of positive parenting practices: independent report.

Comparison 12 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 1 Meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent report.

Comparison 12 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis remove quasi‐randomised studies (Negative parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 12 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 3 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with inadequate blinding (Negative parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 12 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 4 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without an intention to treat analysis (Negative parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 12 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 5 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with over 20% attrition and no ITT (Negative parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 12 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 6 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without independent replication (Negative parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 12 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 7 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with high risk of bias (Negative parenting practices: parent report).

Comparison 12 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 8 Subgroup severity of conduct problems of negative parenting practices: parent report.

Comparison 12 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 9 Subgroup trial setting of negative parenting practices: parent report.

Comparison 12 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: parent‐report, Outcome 10 Subgroup socioeconomic status of negative parenting practices: parent report.

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 1 Meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report.

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis remove quasi‐randomised studies (Negative parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 3 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with inadequate blinding (Negative parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 4 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without an intention to treat analysis (Negative parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 5 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with over 20% attrition and no ITT (Negative parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 6 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without independent replication (Negative parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 7 Sensitivity analysis remove non‐validated studies (Negative parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 8 Sensitivity analysis remove studies at high risk of bias (Negative parenting practices: independent report).

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 9 Subgroup severity of conduct problems of negative parenting practices: independent report.

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 10 Subgroup trial setting of negative parenting practices: independent report.

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 11 Subgroup socioeconomic status of negative parenting practices: independent report.

Comparison 13 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of negative parenting practices: independent report, Outcome 12 Subgroup level of implementation fidelity in negative parenting practices: independent report.

Comparison 14 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: parent‐report, Outcome 1 Meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: parent report.

Comparison 14 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: parent‐report, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with inadequate blinding (Child emotional problems: parent report).

Comparison 14 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: parent‐report, Outcome 3 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without an intention to treat analysis (Child emotional problems: parent report).

Comparison 14 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: parent‐report, Outcome 4 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with over 20% attrition and no ITT (Child emotional problems: parent report).

Comparison 14 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: parent‐report, Outcome 5 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without independent replication (Child emotional problems: parent report).

Comparison 14 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: parent‐report, Outcome 6 Subgroup severity of conduct problems of child emotional problems: parent report.

Comparison 14 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: parent‐report, Outcome 7 Subgroup trial setting of child emotional problems: parent report.

Comparison 14 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: parent‐report, Outcome 8 Subgroup implementation fidelity of child emotional problems: parent report.

Comparison 15 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: independent report, Outcome 1 Meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: independent report.

Comparison 15 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: independent report, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with inadequate blinding (Child emotional problems: independent report).

Comparison 15 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: independent report, Outcome 3 Sensitivity analysis remove studies without an intention to treat analysis (Child emotional problems: independent report).

Comparison 15 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: independent report, Outcome 4 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with over 20% attrition and no ITT (Child emotional problems: independent report).

Comparison 15 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: independent report, Outcome 5 Subgroup severity of conduct problems of child emotional problems: independent report.

Comparison 15 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: independent report, Outcome 6 Subgroup trial setting of child emotional problems: independent report.

Comparison 15 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child emotional problems: independent report, Outcome 7 Subgroup level of implementation fidelity: independent report.

Comparison 16 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report, Outcome 1 Meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report.

Comparison 16 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report, Outcome 2 Sensitivity analysis remove quasi‐randomised studies (Child cognitive ability: independent report).

Comparison 16 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report, Outcome 3 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with inadequate blinding (Child cognitive ability: independent report).

Comparison 16 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report, Outcome 4 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with no intention to treat analysis (Child cognitive ability: independent report).

Comparison 16 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report, Outcome 5 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with attrition over 20% and no ITT (Child cognitive ability: independent report).

Comparison 16 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report, Outcome 6 Sensitivity analysis remove studies with high risk of bias (Child cognitive ability: independent report).

Comparison 16 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report, Outcome 7 Subgroup severity of conduct problems of child cognitive ability: independent report.

Comparison 16 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report, Outcome 8 Subgroup trial setting of child cognitive ability: independent report.

Comparison 16 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report, Outcome 9 Subgroup socioeconomic status of child cognitive ability: independent report.

Comparison 16 Parent training versus control meta‐analysis of child cognitive ability: independent report, Outcome 10 Subgroup level of implementation fidelity of child cognitive ability: independent report.